Manchuria


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Manchuria (': 滿洲; ': ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ) officially known as the Manchu Republic (滿族共和國; ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ) is a sovereign state in. It boarders to the north and to the east,  to the west,  to the southwest, Korea to the south east and the  to the south. Its capital and largest city is, and possesses a population of 119,042,926 people, the twelfth highest in the world, in between Mexico and the Lan Na. It is the ninth largest country in behind its neighbour Mongolia and the 26th in the world at 1,165,000km2, being larger then  but smaller then. It is governed as an   with a.

Manchuria has historically been part of various Chinese and Korean dynasties, but was for most of its history inhabited by, most notably the (later referred to as the ). Manchuria served as the seat of the influential between 1115 to 1234 before in was conquered by the. Later Manchuria came under the sway of the Mongol ruled although the growing influence of the  saw the southern regions of Manchuria put under Ming rule. In the early 1580's Jurchen chieftain united the Jurchen tribes and was able to conquer the entirety of Manchuria, and establish the foundations for the.

In 1644 the Qing were able to take control of defeating the Ming dynasty and thus gaining the mantle of leadership over their lands. Under the Qing the modern state of China was formed with the Qing naming it as such following their victory over the Ming, with the concept of Han superiority being replaced with that of the idea of a state. Manchuria soon adopted similar agricultural practices to the rest of China, although the Qing rulers discouraged mass Han migration to Manchurian regions. The saw large tacts of Manchurian land ceded to, with the 1800's seeing  being completely annexed by the. The decline of the Qing empire saw come under the influence of both Russia and  with Japan exerting much more influence over Manchurian regions following the  and  revolutions which undermined Chinese and Russian interests in Manchuria.

In 1916 warlord Zhao Guangping took control over large swathes of Manchuria, trying to establish the First Manchu Republic. Zhao was supported by a group of warlords known as the who initially supported the  before 1920, and by Japan. However Zhao's government began to collapse after the saw China placed under the control of the. The military junta of Zhao was destroyed in the Manchu-Chinese War in 1929 after Fengtian warlord subsequently swore loyalty to the republican government. The however enabled the Japanese to  Manchuria in 1931, placing it under Japanese control.

The Japanese occupation of Manchuria saw the creation of the of  ostensibly created as the homeland to the  ethnic group. Despite being officially ruled by the last Chinese emperor of the Qing dynasty in reality Manchukuo was controlled almost entirely by Japan. In 1944 a coalition of Manchu, , , and other  led by Zhao Guangping staged a revolt against the government of Manchukuo, establishing the Second Manchu Republic. This republic, ostensibly a, was plagued by internal conflicts and was subsequently invaded and occupied by the in August 1945.

After a brief period of occupation by the Soviets Manchuria became a of the Soviet Union known as the Democratic People's Republic of Manchuria. A government was reformed which saw the country become a  which was ruled by the Communist Party of Manchuria, with Manchu independence negotiated by communist leader Xu Xiaobao, with the main Soviet aim being to establish a buffer state between it and the US aligned Korea. During communist rule Manchuria and the newly formed begun a controversial policy nicknamed as the "Great Exchange" which saw a mass forced relocation of thousands of Chinese Manchus into Manchuria with equally as many Han Chinese and Mongolians deported from Manchuria to China. In the Manchuria experienced nationwide protests against communist rule. These protests became known as the Orchid Revolution which saw the communist government oversee the transition of Manchuria into its current democratic republic.

Since 1989 Manchuria has reformed into a multi party democracy, with elections having been held continually since the communist government transferred power in 1990. After implementing some "" economic policies throughout the majority of the duration of the 1990's, Manchuria has since balanced into a,   with some of the more excessive practices of  being curbed, and have since maintained positive economic growth with steps being enacted to begin the transition Manchuria into a  economy. However the primary and secondary sectors remain large sources of income for Manchuria thanks to large resources of and other natural minerals, the continued prevalence of  as well as the large manufacturing sector that ranges from the processing of natural resources to the creation of consumer products.

Despite maintaining the 16th largest economy as measured by nominal GDP wealth inequality remains prevalent especially in the wake of the, as well as concerns over a legislature and alleged marginalisation of the minority  community. Manchuria maintains amicable relations with the majority of its neighbours and is an active member of various international organisations such as the, , , , , and the.

Etymology
The term "Manchuria" is officially recognised as an by the Manchu government, which normally uses the term of "Manchu Republic" (滿族共和國; Mǎnzú Gònghéguó). "Manchuria" meanwhile comes from the translation of the  word Manshū, and has traditionally been associated with Western and   of.

The term "Manchu" comes from the name Manju, which was applied to the (who mainly resided in the northeastern parts of China) by the  emperor  who became subsequently known as the, although the Manchu people never referred to their homeland as "Manchuria". Rather, originally the Qing named these northern regions as the "three eastern provinces" (三東省; Dōng Sānshěng), but provincial changes in 1907 saw the territory renamed as the "Three Northeast Provinces" (東北三省; Dōngběi Sānshěng), and was often referred to as simply the Northeast (東北; Dōngběi). Other names used to describe the region include Guandong (關東; Guāndōng) which translate to "east of the pass" or Guanwai (關外; Guānwài) which means "outside of the pass", both of which are used to describe the regions proximity with the.

When Zhao Guangping declared an independence in 1916 he named the state as the "Manchu Republic" although its people colloquially referred to it as Dongbei. Internationally however it was known as Manchuria. The Japanese puppet state in Manchuria saw the region named as "" (滿洲國; Mǎnzhōuguó) which meant "Manchu State". In it was called "Manshū-koku" (満州国). In 1934 Manchukuo was renamed as the Great Empire of Manchukuo (Chinese: 大滿洲帝國, Dà Mǎnzhōu Dìguó; Japanese: 大満州帝国, Dai Manshū Teikoku). The Manchu Uprising of 1944 saw the turbulent liberal government that opposed the Japanese referred to itself as the "Manchu Republic" emulating the name of the former government of Zhao, with some commentators nicknaming it as "Liberated Manchuria" or "Republican Manchuria".

The communist government with encouragement from China originally renamed the state as "Youhonglonghe" (由紅龍河; Yóuhónglónghé) which translates to the "By the Red Dragon River". However following the this was reversed controversially by communist leader Xu Xiaobao who formally renamed the state as Manchuria in an effort to reaffirm allegiance with the Soviet Union. Since the Orchid Revolution there has occasionally been calls to rename Manchuria over the concern that the name is a relic of imperialism - however no new name has been agreed on by any of the political parties.

Early history
Archaeological evidence shows that Manchuria has housed human life from the period onwards. Notable neolithic cultures found in modern day Manchuria include the, and  cultures.

Manchuria has been ruled by the native ethnic groups of the region such as the, , , , and  kingdoms which was mainly ruled by  (such as the ,  and  ethnic groups). The region also came under the control of various Chinese dynasties such as the, , , and. kingdoms such as the, , , and. In the latter two Korean kingdoms Tungusic aristocrats ruled rather then the previous Korean warlords. The kingdom of Balhae saw the region develop into a  society with the inhabitants starting to create their own culture unique from those of the southern regions and that of the. The continued dominance of the saw the  Khitan people of modern day  conquer surrounding regions including Manchuria in the creation of the  (officially known as the "Great Liao"). The Liao empire was the first to incorporate the entirety of modern Manchuria within its boarders. Under the Liao empire the Jurchen people (who preceded the modern day Manchu people) were tributaries to the Liao mostly living in the forests in the northeastern parts of the empire.

Jin dynasty
Around 1115 the clan of the Jurchen people enacted the  which saw the alliance between the Wanyan and the Song dynasty, who invaded the Liao dynasty with the Wanyan creating the  ("Great Jin"). The Jin soon in a series of military campaigns. A migration of occurred in the Great Jin with the former ruling Khitan people either being assimilated or exiled to. The Jin became significant for spreading from the Song dynasty throughout the region.

In 1149, grandson of Jin dynasty founder , overthrew the incumbent emperor taking over the position himself. Hailing had ambitions to rule the entirety of China, and begun the of the Jurchen people as well as move the capital from  to Yangjing (modern day ). Despite his adoption of Han traditions and encouragement of Han migration, Jurchen aristocracy remained dominant within the empire. Hailing however was brutal to what he perceived as dissident lords, having 155 Jurchen princes executed. This caused division in the Jin's ruling class, with Hailing's invasion of in 1161 prompting two rebellions in northern Jing, one by Khitan tribes, the other by Jurchen lords. Hailing was forced to call off his invasion of the Song to put down the rebellions, which severely depleted his military forces. Later defeats at and  saw Hailing and his son assassinated by his generals in December 1961. Hailing's successor spent his first years quelling the Khitran uprising. Realising the Great Jin had no military means to fight the Song dynasty, Shizong had a peace agreement negotiated with the Song, named the Treaty of Lóngxīng.

Mongolian rule
The onset of the 13th century saw frequent attacks upon the Jin by forces under the control of   which further weakened the military and political standing of the Jin. In 1211 following the Mongol invasion of Mongol forces started to invade Jin causing the. The onset of these wars caused Khitan tribesmen led by Yelü Liuge to ally with Genghis Khan, creating an ostensibly autonomous state in the upper Manchuria region despite facing attacks from the Jin that were repelled by Mongol forces. Meanwhile the Jin continued to decline thanks to internal strife such as the rebellion led by who established the state of Eastern Xia in 1215 with support from the Mongolians. Puxian however rebelled against the Mongols before being exiled to an island giving the Mongolians a chance to annexe, , and. A further rebellion among the Khitans saw Yelü ousted with the Khitan trying to also rebel against the Mongolians before they too were crushed by combined Mongolian and Korean forces from the kingdom.

Meanwhile Mongolian forces continued to attack key Jin cities such as on the  and the Jin's capital of. In 1214 Emperor abandoned the capital, where he was persuaded to attack the weakening Song so he could compensate for territory lost from the Mongols. A defeat at the and the ousting of Xuanzong by his brother  saw a peace treated enacted with the  who were allied with the Mongols. Following the death of Genghis Khan his son proceeded to along with the Song dynasty to mount an attack onto Jin, with Emperor Aizong fleeing to the city of Caizhou following the. Aizongs suicide during the in 1234 and the Mongols victory saw the end of the Jin dynasty, with their lands divided between the Mongols and the Song. Soon however disagreements between the Mongols and the Song saw the Mongols annexe the Song dynasty as well as northern regions of Manchuria inhabited by Jurchen peoples, with the whole northeast Chinese region falling completely under Mongolian control. The Mongols successfully gained suppressed further rebellions under Ögedei such as that of the in 1237.

Manchuria was put under the control of the following its creation in 1271 by. Continued Mongol rule in Manchuria saw technological innovation made with some of the first cannons ever made being manufactured in Mongolian Manchuria. The subsequent expulsion of Mongolians from China following the collapse of the Mongol kharnates saw the Tungusic aristocrats and lords still ally with the final Yuan emperor. The was able to take many southern regions of Manchuria by 1371 three years after the expulsion of the Mongols from Beijing. However, resistance still remained with the Mongolian tribe which resided in Manchuria invading Liaodong in 1375 prompting a  between Manchuria and the Ming, with the latter eventually defeating the Uriankhai.

Ming dynasty
The Ming under tried to pacify Jurchen resistance as well as finally defeat the remnants of the Yuan primarily by establishing the  which coordinated military action in Manchuria. Most notably the  led several vogues down the  and  rivers managing to coerce Jurchen chieftains to swear their loyalty with the Ming.

The death of the Yongle emperor and the ascension of the saw Ming policy in Manchuria change with expansionist ideals replaced with those that instead advocated for the strengthening of southern Manchurian territories that were controlled by the Ming. Wary of the prospect of a possible Jurchen-Mongol invasion of the Ming a smaller, simpler version of the (known as the " Liaodong Wall") was built on the boarder primarily to defend the Ming from. Despite this Chinese culture in both southern and northern regions thrived with Chinese cuisine, traditional stories and symbols, New Year, and Chinese products such as cotton spread among the Jurchen people especially those along the Amur river.

Qing dynasty
The 1580's saw a Jurchen warlord known as unified and conquered several Jurchen tribes north of the Ming boarder such as the, , and. Nurchaci proclaimed himself as the Khan of the Jing dynasty, as well as outlining a list of against the Ming dynasty. Nurhaci followed this by waging war against not only the Ming but the Mongols,, and other Jurchen tribes, greatly expanding his sphere of influence. Soon Jurchen forces started to conduct more direct attacks against the Ming, with Nurhaci committing to the aim of. The Jurchen were able to speed this invasion with Han Chinese officials defecting to Jurchen forces for the promise of being given a women from the, the royal family which Nurhaci was the patriarch. Nuhaci saw the formal adoption of the in.

Nuhaci also created the (commonly called the Bannermen) which saw military success in  and Liaoning. However in 1626 Nuhaci was killed in his first major military defeat at by Ming forces led by. His successor however continued Nuhaci's expansion into both the Ming territories and. Hong Taiji renamed the Jurchen people the as a possible indicator of his interest in expanding Manchu interests beyond Manchuria as well as utilise Han Chinese defectors to serve in his bureaucracy, in which the Khan played a highly centralised role. In 1643 Hong died leaving no clear successor, with a compromise being reached that his five year old son would be the nominal whilst his half brother  served as regent. Meanwhile the Ming started to enter an endless period of infighting amongst their senior officials as well as failing to deal with peasant rebellions. This enabled the a rebel warlord named to in April 1644 to take the capital of Beijing where the final Ming ruler the  committed suicide, ending the Ming dynasty, establishing the  in its place. Li marched his rebel forces on the, which was controlled by Ming loyalists led by. Wu decided that he would rather ally with the Manchu's then let the pass fall to the rebel forces, resulting in a joint effort by Wu's forces and the Manchu's to destroy the rebel forces in the. The battle also enabled the Manchu's to take Beijing in June 1644 with the Manchu's established the, with the emperor being named the in October. It took a further 17 years however for the Qing to take the whole of Ming territory as they battled rebels and loyalists. During this time many Han Chinese joined the Manchu bannermen, where they enjoyed various political, legal and social privileges, with the Manchu's soon becoming a minority. Despite this Manchu leaders quickly began to test their new conquests loyalty with most notably in 1645 regent Dorgon ordered a decree that forced all men to cut their hair into a or face death. The queue was seen as humiliating and a contradiction of traditional values among the Han, prompting widespread resistance especially in, which in itself prompted ethnic killings to be enacted against Han Chinese. During this time the Qing treated the region of Manchuria in a separate fashion acting akin to a highly autonomous region. The conquest of Ming territories saw the Qing name their state China (中國, Zhōngguó) which translates to "Middle Kingdom", with the Qing stressing the ethnic homogamy between Han, Manchu, Mongolian, and  people.

Regent Dorgon died in December 1650, prompting the Emperor once again to amass the majority of power although at 12 years his mother the mainly directed policy. The Shunzhi Emperor however died in 1661, seeing the ascent of the longest serving Chinese emperor the. At only 8 years of age the Kangxi Emperor was at first guided by four senior officials appointed by the Shunzhi Emperor,, , and , each chosen for their loyalty, lack of assertions for the imperial throne and to halt each other from amassing power in the same way Dorgon had done. However soon Oboi started to dominate the Qing state, having Suksaha killed whilst having Ebilun act as his loyal companion. Eventually at a mere 14 years the emperor had Oboi imprisoned, thus beginning his own personal rule. The Kangxi Emperor's long rule was marked with remarkable stability, thanks partly to the bureaucracy that the Manchu's had adopted that saw the creation of the. Respect for Confucianism saw it possible for Han Chinese to ascend the political hierarchy. Meanwhile the Manchu ruling elite were able to appeal to their roots to gather the support from the conquered Mongols, Uyghurs and Tibetans, meaning that Manchu rule remained unquestioned. Ruling such large territory however saw increased autonomy given to feudal lords such as Wu Sangui, and. In 1673, Shang petitioned for his retirement and for his son to take control over the land ceded to him by the Emperor. After the Kangxi Emperor refused to let his son succeed him Shang along with Wu and Geng initiated the in August. The insurrection lasted for 8 years with Wu trying to establish himself as the Emperor of a new dynasty, and was able to gin support mainly from people in territories south from the. Eventually a coalition of Manchu warlords led by the Emperor saw the rebel forces crushed in 1681, although southern China was ruined in the process. Following this victory the Kangxi was able to lead campaigns against the to strengthen his grip in, known as the  as well as annexe  in 1683.

The Manchurian boarder with the had always been vague with sporadic fighting taking place between the Qing and the Russians since the, with the  raging for just under 30 years with Russian brutality being widely feared in Manchuria. Fighting over the town of saw the Qing sign the, marking the Qing's first contact with a major  power. The close of the century and the end of the Kangxi Emperor's reign in 1722 saw the Qing reach the zenith of its existence with the largest economy in the world as well as being one of the largest empires by that point. During this time the Qing were able to halt mass Han emigration to Manchuria thanks to the construction of the that separated Manchuria from.

In 1722 the Kangxi emperor died leading to the appointment of the, who implemented measures that saw greater suppression of anti-Confucian and anti-Manchu ideals as well as banning and expelling all Christian missionaries. He also created a that served as the executive power behind the emperor, as well as enforce land tax from all local lords. This enabled the Yongzheng emperor to build infrastructure around his empire especially in the northern Manchurian regions, although a financial crisis still persisted. The Yongzheng emperor's death in 1735 saw his son become the who subsequently conquered larger swathes of Mongolia and  and Tibet, putting down insurgencies and uprisings. Although important cultural advancements (such as the ) were made under the Qianlong Emperor his rule soon became infamous for establishing the which hunted down and persecuted intellectuals and their families if they opposed imperial rule. The empire under the Qianlong Emperor soon began to prosper, with ample food imports coming in from and a population boom. This however soon became a detriment as overcrowding became common, with only Manchuria having large tacts of uninhabited land. The Qing in an effort to protect their homeland eventually decreed that no Han Chinese could settle in Manchuria on pain of death. The Qing court was also becoming increasingly corrupt, with the failing to put an end to the corruption despite having the most infamously corrupt man in court,, commit suicide. In 1796 the engaged in open  with the Qing. Despite the movement being crushed in 1804 the Qing's authority was starting to become increasingly non-existent.

The weakening of the Qing saw a mass migration of Han Chinese into Manchuria with many of them farming the rich, uncultivated land in Manchuria. The Qing allowed Han to migrate due to famine, floods and drought becoming increasingly common in the southern regions of China. The even had Manchu-only lands sold to Han Chinese to increase agricultural output. However, this policy was soon quickly reversed as a massive backlash from the ethnic Manchu's saw many Han Chinese expelled from Manchuria.

During this time the Qing dynasty was facing many internal and external conflicts. European colonies in and  forced the Qing to establish the  which saw all trade filtered through the port of  in southern China, thereby restricting European influence. The Britannians performed several unsuccessful attempts to open free trade with the Qing, but they refused almost every offer. Demand for Chinese goods such as silk, ceramics, and tea among others was high among European nations such as Britannia and France, but the Chinese refused all but silver to be imported into China. Frustrated with the drain on silver placed on their economies, Britannia started to import into China where its demand quickly sky-rocketed. Concerned with the overflow of silver and the effects of opium the Daoguang Emperor had his aide confiscate all opium imports into China without compensation and subsequently banned the smoking of it. In 1839 Britain declared war on China initiating the. The Chinese soon proved to be ineffective against the British with their wooden junk ships being easily outmatched by British galleons and artillery. The Qing surrendered in 1842 where they were forced to sign the humiliating which saw the Chinese open the ports of, ,  and  as well as allow the British to annexe the port of.

The was launched in opposition of the weakening Qing regime, being led by. Hong was able to establish the which outlawed slavery, arranged marriage, opium smoking and foot binding among other things, with Hong stating that he was the brother of. However internal conflict tore the kingdom apart, as well as French and British military who assisted the Qing's Imperial Army. helped secure military victory for the Qing in 1864 but not before over 20 million people died with the revolt being named the bloodiest civil war in history. During this time China was forced to sign several more humiliating treaties such as the which saw large chunk of Manchuria ceded to Russia. In 1868 Russia attempted to expel Chinese citizens from Outer Manchuria, with intense fighting breaking out in after Russian authorities shut down gold mines and forced Chinese people to leave Russia. Low intensity fighting lasted until 1892 when the Chinese were eventually driven out of Russia.

The ascension of the saw the, an attempt to preserve the Qing dynasty through the. This saw some tepid modernisation with Qing officials such as attempting to balance out  Confucian values and Western armaments. Armies were reformed with modern organisation and weapons, formed the which served as the first proper foreign ministry, and established the. The which saw the slaughter of French missionaries and nuns, prompted the French to begin. The saw France conquer the Qing vassal state of  with the Qing giving up the state in 1885, furthering weakening its geopolitical status. Relations between China and Japan further deteriorated after the Qing intervened in the failed in Korea, which in turn led to the 1885  which was a humiliating military defeat for the Qing. The Japanese aimed to take territory in Manchuria, but pressure from Britannia and Russia who had their own territorial ambitions forced Japan to abandon these claims. Nevertheless the prestige of the Qing dynasty in the international scene was rapidly receding as they became unable to govern China. Manchuria was coming under the increasing influence of Russia which helped build the.

During this time the was taking on an active role in government acting in steed of the Tongzhi Emperor alongside the. The death of the Tongzhi Emperor saw the ascend the throne, a break from the thousand year tradition of the son being the heir apparent of the throne. The which led to German missionaries being murdered saw Germany lease territory in the  which in turn saw Russia gain territory in  and Britain in. In response to this the Guangxu Emperor led the which would modernise the ruling bureaucracy and education system. Conservative opposition saw a de facto coup performed by the Empress Dowager Cixi against the emperor, although some reforms were implemented. Drought, political instability and European imperialism led many in Northern China to support the led by the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (or Boxers), a group opposed to all foreign influence in China who killed several foreigners mostly Christian missionaries. The Empress Dowager supported the rebellion causing several powers (, Britannia-France,, , , , Sierra, and the ) to form the that besieged Beijing from the 14th August 1900. Chinese defence was hard fought, but ultimately fruitless as the Empress Dowager escaped to the city of as the powers formulated a score of demands for the Qing to adhere to.

The Boxer Rebellion saw Russia invade Manchuria and kill a large amount of Manchus and Han Chinese citizens. In response to this the Chinese launched guerilla warfare against Russia, supporting the Japanese in the which saw the Japanese take control over parts of Manchuria, creating the. In 1908 both the Guangxu Emperor and the Empress Dowager Cixi died, with the Guangxu Emperor's nephew becoming the Xuantong Emperor. The Qing however were rapidly losing power especially after Puyi's father and regent appointed a cabinet that consisted primarily of members of the royal family.

From 1899 to 1911 Manchuria was hit by the after it spread following the. Local Manchu authorities sought to contain the disease by segregating the Han and Manchu populations, with the Han facing the brunt of the diseases spread resulting in the deaths of over 100,000 Han Chinese. The worst outbreak of the disease was between 1910-11.

Lack of reform, the decreasing decline of the Qing, poor living standards and liberal ideas from the west saw disgruntled military officers, students, and other revolutionaries demand for the end of Qing rule and the creation of a new modernised state. The in 1911 proved to be the catalyst for the  that saw republicans led by  declare the creation of the. Yat-sen was declared, but gave power to who led the  who had crushed revolutionaries at the. Yuan was then the prime minister of the Qing, having removed Zaifeng from the regency and appointed the in his place. Yuan oversaw the abdication of Puyi which took place in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China.

Republic of China
Following the abdication of Puyi China was officially under the rule of Yuan's republican government, with being held in 1912-13, with the  (more commonly known as the Kuomintang) winning the election. The leader and founder of the Kuomintang, was assassinated however in March 1913, possibly under the orders Yuan Shikai, after Song had campaigned for a weaker executive presidency. Yuan subsequently became more dictatorial, marginalising the Kuomintang in the national legislature whilst making executive decisions alone. These decisions included taking loans from Britannia whilst giving Outer Mongolia and Manchuria special political rights after facing pressure from Russia and Japan. Sun Yat-Sen urged members of the Kuomintang to launch a revolution against Yuan, but this was crushed resulting in Yuan centralising his power further. In 1914 the parliament was dissolved by Yuan, who restructured the provincial governments so they were ruled by loyal military governors.

In 1915 Yuan started to enforce Confucian ideals in the Chinese government, restoring the with Yuan as the Hongxian Emperor. This move was widely unpopular as was Yuan's increasing dependence on foreign loans especially to the Japanese. Yuan in the face of international isolation abolished the monarchy in March 1916 - however many provinces had already began a rebellion against Yuan who died in May. Following Yuan's death the central government became increasingly unstable as the region was thrown into a period known as the.

Warlord Era
In June 1916 following the death of Yuan Shikai a group of Manchu military officers led by Zhao Guangping took control of Manchuria, and set up of Provincial Government centred around the city of. At first the provincial administration swore loyalty to the - however following the failed  in 1917 Zhao issued the Manchu Declaration of Independence which asserted that the Manchu Republic was a sovereign state separate from China. Zhao subsequently established the Manchu Republican Army, which began to receive supplies and equipment from Japan. Zhao allowed for a lot more Japanese influence to permeate the region, with Japanese ports being established along the Manchurian coast.

Zhao soon became supported by a cadre of warlords known as the. Whilst the new Manchurian state was not part of China, neither Zhao nor the Japanese wanted the rival to take power and subsequently allowed the Changchung based Fengtian Clique to launch attacks into China Proper from Manchuria with major campaigns being undertaken in  and. The second war saw the Fengtian Clique take over Beijing, leading the Fengtian warlord to control the Beiyang government, and recognise Manchuria as an independent state.

As the president of the Manchu Republic Zhao also allowed members of the Russian  to base their far eastern operations in Manchuria, which marked Zhao out as an opponent of the new Bolshevik government of Russia. Zhao himself relied on local feudal landlords to help prop up his military junta, setting up a secret police to root out dissent which mainly came from peasants and those aligned with the Kuomintang. Zhao also began a campaign of against the Han population, being an early proponent of. Han people were forced to adopt Manchu cultural practices, with many being summarily executed most likely on ethnic grounds. Zhao's anti-Han campaign was supported by the Japanese as it helped separate Manchuria further from China proper and thus create a reliable ally in the region. Zhao's policies helped foster the idea of a Manchu state, with the Manchu people starting to see themselves as separate from the Chinese.

Zhao also sought to advance the economy of Manchuria, buying industrial goods from Japan taking advice from a small group of Japanese economists. Zhao's industrialisation polices angered some feudal landlords who formed part of Zhao's support base, causing the government to redistribute land to loyal landlords. Railroads were also built mainly to more easily facilitate trade between Manchuria and Japan. However, the economy remained largely agricultural with industrialisation efforts overall being tepid. The mining industry was nationalised with Manchuria exporting coal and steel.

However, Zhao's Manchu government received very little foreign recognition. Japan signed a friendship treaty in July 1916 formally recognising the Manchu state. Zhao sent emissaries to Akitsu,, Lan Na, and Kolhar. In 1924 Zhao evicted members of the White Army from Manchuria in a deal with the, with the Soviets and recognising Manchuria that year. However, the state failed to get recognition from European powers who treated it as a province of the Republic of China. The Kuomintang also saw Manchuria as being part of China, and never recognised its declaration of independence. Of the warlord cliques of China, only the Fengtian Clique recognised Zhao's government.

In 1926 Kuomintang  of the  in alliance with the  led a campaign known as the  against the Beiyang government in an attempt to unify China under nationalist rule. The Zhili clique was quickly defeated in Beijing, with the Fengtian clique being pushed back further into Manchuria. In 1928 defeated the Fengtian army, causing Zhang Zuolin to retreat further into Zhao's Manchu state. The Northern Expedition saw Zhao's government and the Japanese become infuriated with Zhang's defeat to the nationalists and prepare for a nationalist invasion. Fearing Zhang would defect to the Kuomintang the plotted and carried out the  which saw Zhang assassinated in a train bomb. His successor was his son who Zhao saw as more subservient.

To the shock of Zhao and the Japanese Zhang and the Fengtian Army in December 1928 declared their to the Kuomintang, who subsequently launched a war against the Manchuria. The Manchu Republican Army despite being trained and equipped by the Kwantung Army was ineffective against the Kuomintang, with Manchurian forces being pushed out of Fengtian in March 1929. Fighting continued until June 1929 when the Manchu Republican Army surrendered. Zhao fled to Japan and later Akitsu rather then face arrest by Chinese forces. China was finally unified under one government following the defeat of the Manchu government.

A month after the annexation of Manchuria Zhang attempted to establish Chinese control over the prompting there to be a  with the Soviet Union which saw joint Soviet-Chinese administration restored to the railway. Zhang was now the de facto dictator of Manchuria, although he remained ardently loyal to the Kuomintang supporting the nationalist government in the. However Chinese-Japanese relations were quickly deteriorating with Japan trying to exert more influence in Manchuria. Japanese intelligence minister met with former Qing Emperor Puyi where he proposed to reinstate Puyi as Emperor of Manchuria, an idea already planned by the Japanese government.

Manchukuo
In April 1931 nationalist Chinese leaders Chiang Kai-Shek, and Zhang Xueliang met at   where they asserted plans to further integrate Manchuria into China, mainly by removing Japanese influence and ending the policy of segregation between the Manchu and Han populations. This news was received poorly by Japan whose influence had slowly been diminishing in the region following the overthrow of Zhao's regime. On September 18th 1931 Japanese lieutenant Suemori Kawamoto {detonated a small amount of dynamite at the Japanese controlled. The blast itself did very little damage, but this event known as the sparked claims within Japan that the bomb had been placed by Chinese saboteurs.

Responding to this apparent threat Japan mobilised the and launched a full-blown  of Manchuria on the 19th September. The Japanese quickly captured cities such as Changchung,, , , , , and. By September 25th the cities of and  were also captured with Japan having full control over the  and  provinces. Japan faced much more resistance when it tried to take the province in the form of the  led by, as well as continued fighting in the south led by Zhang. The successful however saw Japan consolidate power in southern Manchuria allowing them to move north. Nationalist general tried to  the city of Harbin, but on the 27th February 1927 Ting surrendered to Japanese forces. Resistance remained in Manchuria, which was subsequently by the Japanese for several years following the invasion.

On the 18th February 1932 the (commonly referred to as "Manchukuo") was declared with the former Qing Emperor Puyi being appointed as its head of state. The state was officially an independent nation envisioned as a homeland for the Manchu people, although in practice it was a of Japan who exerted an enormous amount of political and military power over the weak government which was little more then a rubber stamp.

In 1934 Manchukuo officially became a with Puyi being  as Emperor Kāngdé. Political power however continued to be monopolised in the hands of the Kwantung Army who ruled through the which itself was based on  parties of Europe. The government itself was, and  with Manchukuo being one of the most repressive states in East Asia. Despite calls within Manchukuo to reinforce the segregation between Manchus and Han Chinese the government instead aimed to unite the different ethnic groups of Manchukuo. This was likely because Japan saw Manchukuo as the first step in the creation of what would become the, with Manchukuo possibly being built up as an ideal Asian state.

Manchukuo however did face massive economic growth having one of the largest industrial bases in Asia, being only beaten by Japan and the Soviet Union. Manchukuo also had its own and currency, the. In the late 1930's Manchukuo produced more steel then Japan itself, with coal production exceeding 10,000,000 tonnes. Japan was keen to invest in Manchukuo's industrial activities and to a lesser extent its agricultural sector which included the cultivation of soy, corn, cotton, wheat and opium poppies. Despite Manchukuos economic success, production was prioritised for the Kwantung Army with Manchukuo being little more then a colony that Japan used to extract resources. Land was redistributed with Japanese farmers gaining the best land, and the traditional farmers being sent to small collective farms.

The continued resistance in Manchukuo came from members of the Kuomintang, the Communist Party of China, and Soviet aligned groups. One of these was the Communist Party of Manchuria, which splintered from the CPC 1932, and soon became one of the largest resistance groups recieving backing from the USSR. The was established to stamp out resistance which included members of the Kuomintang who had infiltrated the government.

Manchukuo became a base for which Japan was able to launch attacks into China from in the. Despite the Kuomintang and the nationalists to combat the Japanese, the Communist Party of Manchuria instead resolved to launch operations against Manchukuo without CPC help which in turn resulted in a split in the Chinese communist movement that was never again unified. Japan also became involved in short boarder wars with and the  - in both of them Manchukuo was used once again as the staging post Japan attacked from. Both wars resulted in the signing of the in 1941 which saw the USSR officially recognise Manchukuo.

The outbreak of in  and Japan's singing of the  saw Manchukuo be recognised by several fascist European states. These were:, , , , , , , , and. The Japanese controlled recognised Manchukuo as did  and Lan Na. , the and  also established relations with Manchukuo. During World War Two Manchukuo continued to be used as Japan's stronghold in mainland Asia, holding several naval vessels during the.

In late 1944 discontent against the Japanese was starting to arise in Manchukuo, being spurred by Japan's military losses in the pacific and China. These feelings were exacerbated by a successful communist insurgent movement in Manchukuo led by Xu Xiaobao which had helped fuel anti-Japanese sentiment. In August 1944 Zhao Guan returned to China alongside former members of the Manchu Republican Army, forming the Manchu Republican Congress which soon became an armed guerilla movement against the government of Manchukuo. In September 1944 Zhao formed an alliance with the Communist Party, and led a full insurrection against the Japanese rallying support from peasants. The Japanese were caught off guard by the rebellion, which was directed against the Japanese and Han collaborators. Fighting was mainly concentrated in the north where the communists had been fighting for over a decade, and where was most prevalent.

The city of Harbin was captured in December 1944 by rebel forces leading to the proclamation of the creation of the Second Manchu Republic with Zhao being declared as its Premier. Despite this the newly founded republic was beset by conflict from the start - it controlled very little territory and was embroiled in a war against the Japanese and the Manchukuo government. The new government itself was also unstable, with Zhao being assassinated just over a month after taking power. The government consisted of a large coalition of different political ideologues ranging from, , , , , , and with the only real uniting ideas being that of anti-Japanese sentiment and. The two dominant factions were the republican nationalists of the Manchu Republican Congress and the Communist Party. Zhao's successor Qian Wanyong tried to evict the communists from the government and centralise power in the hands of the Republican Congress, but soon faced civil unrest and political violence in republican held territory. Refusal to compromise resulted in Qian's forced resignation in April, which saw the communists gain greater control of the government, with Qian's successor Song Yixin being a much more passive leader. With greater political cooperation republican troops were able to make huge gains in Manchuria despite being attacked from the west by Japanese troops in.

The in Europe and subsequent surrender of Germany saw the Japanese start to prepare for an invasion from the United States. This enabled the republicans to push forward into Manchukuo, with Japanese control soon being limited to the Fengtian province. The government however was aware that with Japan facing invasion then the would soon resume, and that eventually Manchuria would be annexed by either the Kuomintang or the CPC without foreign support. Communist leader Xu Xiaobao visited the Soviet Union in May, ostensibly to get political recognition. However the Soviet Union was obliged to invade Manchuria as per agreements made at the and  conferences once Nazi Germany surrendered. Xu instead managed to negotiate an agreement that would see the Soviets occupy the region of Manchuria for a period of two years during which a communist government would be created and led by Xu.

The Soviets began the on the 9th August 1945 where they were assisted by the Communist Party of Manchuria. Both the Manchu Republican Army and the Kwangtung Army were quickly defeated as the Soviets occupied Mengjiang, southern, and the. The Kwangtung Army were able to temporarily halt the Soviets as the before being overrun. The rapid defeat of Japanese forces in Manchuria is attributed to one of the reasons of their in September alongside the. Manchuria fell under military occupation where the Communist Party of Manchuria under Xu were already centralising power with former members of the Manchukuo and republican governments such as and Song Yixin being arrested. Puyi was placed under house arrest after being forced to abdicate.

Communist Manchuria
In August 1946 the Soviets ended their occupation with the Democratic People's Republic of Manchuria being established in its stead. Rigged elections were held which saw the Communist Party win a majority of seats in the National People's Assembly with Xu Xiaobao being inaugurated as premier. Xu immediately began building up his newly formed Manchu People's Army drawing from the ranks of the the former and remaining members of the Kwangtung Army. Xu also allowed the Chinese Communists to use Manchuria as a base in which they were able to launch attacks from into the territory surrounding Beijing which was held by the Kuomintang. Despite this early tensions began to arise between and Xu, with the former bitter regarding the decision by the Soviets to allow Manchuria to become an independent state. Nevertheless Manchuria was one of the first nations to recognise the on October 1st 1949.

Manchuria quickly became a   with all power being centralised in the hands of the Communist Party. The strong industrial base of Manchuria allowed the government to quickly invest in heavy industry and state infrastructure. Typical of postwar communist states like those of the all industry came under the control of the state. Land reform was also enacted with all farms being collectivised, effectively breaking the power of the Japanese farmers. The segregation policies were also revived with Manchu's and Japanese being granted more rights then Han Chinese, many of whom quickly immigrated to China. Political dissent was ruthlessly repressed with a secret police service (named the People's Security Secretariat, or the RAMC) being created to monitor the population with concentration camps being established to house enemies of the state. Unlike the process undertaken in Europe many lower ranking bureaucrats of the Manchukuo regime retained government positions, with the RAMC being mainly made up of former members of the Hoankyoku.

Government and politics
Manchuria is officially a    with a  legislature. The Constitution of Manchuria serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which establishes a clear separation of powers. However for much of its history Manchuria was an. From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a  that ended in 1989 following peaceful street protests around Manchuria that became known as the Orchid Revolution. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria still dominate politics.

The Premier of Manchuria serves both as the and the  with the Vice-Premier being their deputy. Manchurian politics are split between various parties with the two largest being the  People's Labour Party (RG) and the,  National Liberal Party (GZD). Currently the coalition known as the Coalition for a United Manchuria holds a majority government, and is led by the NLP along with the League of National Freedom and the Party of Agrarian Reform. The current premier and NLP leader Li Zhou is the first female head of state and government of Manchuria. The legislature of Manchuria is known as the Supreme People's Assembly and consists of 685 seats.

Elections
General and presidential elections are held concurrently every five years in Manchuria. Manchuria uses a voting system that utilises the, with there being an electoral threshold being 3%. The same year local provincial and municipal elections are held as well as presidential elections which see political parties field candidates who are voted using a.

Political Parties
Main article: List of Political Parties in Manchuria

Economy
Manchuria currently maintains the 16th largest economy in the world if measured by at $926,781 million a year. The Manchurian economy has been one of the strongest in although it has not reached the economic growth of the  (, Korea,  and South Vietnam) with the  still being relatively small compared to  economies in Europe. The national currency of Manchuria is the Manchu Yuan. Manchuria mainly exports goods to, Korea, South Vietnam, and whilst receives imports from China and the.

Manchuria was the first industrialised region in the Qing dynasty, and has since become highly urbanised thanks to its large deposits. However Manchuria did not achieve a smooth transition from a  to a   one, with   being implemented following the fall of the communist regime. This rapid wave of resulted in widespread poverty and poverty to occur in Manchuria as well as a rise in corruption. In response to this a successive PLP government sought to reintroduce regulation and protectionist policies into the economy overseeing the transition into a balanced, which has resulted in less unemployment.

The saw inflation in Manchuria rise substantially, with  policies and  being enacted in order to curtail the worst effects of this inflation. Although this has seen a marked increase in the growth of the economy with the GDP rising by 2.8% in 2013 wealth inequality has skyrocketed with Manchuria having a higher inequality rating then its neighbours, and Korea. The government have since however tried to maintain a consistent path to growth adopting less radical economic policies and establishing a largely stable fiscal situation.

Manchuria still retains a largely with the main industries including, , , and  manufacture. Manchuria also has a large industry as well as maintaining several  refining facilities. Manchuria also has an active agricultural sector with its main exports being,  and. Southern Manchurian lands provide ample conditions to raise and, although farming has declined steadily ever since the mass industrialisation seen in the communist era.

Demographics
According to the most recent estimates Manchuria has a total population of 119,042,926 people, making it one of the populated countries in the world behind Mexico but ahead to Lan Na. Since 1945 the population has increased by 385%, with the biggest population growth occurring in the late-1970's to early 2000's. Since then the government has actively promoted family planning measures, with incentives given to those who use sterilisation clinics or who opt for abortions. The government have also suggested holding a referendum that would see the electorate vote on whether Manchuria should adopt a one child policy.

Ethnic groups
The majority of Manchurians (61%) define themselves as ethnically. The Manchu people were the majority ethnic group in Manchuria until the 1850's when the Qing dynasty allowed people to migrate to Manchuria. However this resulted in a backlash by the Manchu's who forcibly assimilated many Han Chinese into Manchu culture, much to the outrage of the Qing government. During the communist era prior to the many Han Chinese deported from Manchuria to be replaced with Manchu's in  and saw a greater promotion of the Manchu people. Many who identify as Manchu are of mixed Manchu-Han descent.

The second largest ethnic group in Manchuria is who officially constitute 32% of the population. The third largest group is at 3%, followed by  at 0.8% and  at 0.4%. Other ethnic groups make up 2.8% of the total population. Foreign immigrants to Manchuria traditionally come from, , and. However since the fall of communism many other nationalities have settled in Manchuria, the most prominent being Korean and. Koreans especially have seen a huge population spike in Manchuria since the 1990's.