Manchuria


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Manchuria (': 滿洲; ': ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ) officially known as the Manchu Republic (滿族共和國; ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ) is a sovereign state in. It borders to the north and to the east,  to the west, Korea to the south east and the  to the south. Its capital is and largest city, possessing a population of 119,042,926 people, the twelfth highest in the world, in between Mexico and the Lan Na. It is the ninth largest country in behind its neighbour Mongolia and the 26th in the world at 1,165,000km2, being larger then Turkey but smaller then. It is governed as an   with a.

Manchuria has historically been part of various Chinese and Korean dynasties, but was for most of its history inhabited by, most notably the (later referred to as the ). Manchuria served as the seat of the influential between 1115 to 1234 before in was conquered by the. Later Manchuria came under the sway of the Mongol ruled although the growing influence of the  saw the southern regions of Manchuria put under Ming rule. In the early 1580's Jurchen chieftain united the Jurchen tribes and was able to conquer the entirety of Manchuria, and establish the foundations for the.

In 1644 the Qing were able to take control of defeating the Ming dynasty and thus gaining the mantle of leadership over their lands. Under the Qing the modern state of China was formed with the Qing naming it as such following their victory over the Ming, with the concept of Han superiority being replaced with that of the idea of a state. Manchuria soon adopted similar agricultural practices to the rest of China, although the Qing rulers discouraged mass Han migration to Manchurian regions. The saw large tacts of Manchurian land ceded to, with the 1800's seeing  being completely annexed by the. The decline of the Qing empire saw come under the influence of both Russia and  with Japan exerting much more influence over Manchurian regions following the  and  revolutions which undermined Chinese and Russian interests in Manchuria.

In 1916 warlord Zhao Guangping took control over large swathes of Manchuria, trying to establish the First Manchu Republic. Zhao was supported by a group of warlords known as the who initially supported the  before 1920, and by Japan. However Zhao's government began to collapse after the saw China placed under the control of the. The military junta of Zhao was destroyed in the Manchu-Chinese War in 1929 after Fengtian warlord subsequently swore loyalty to the republican government. The however enabled the Japanese to  Manchuria in 1931, placing it under Japanese control.

The Japanese occupation of Manchuria saw the creation of the of  ostensibly created as the homeland to the  ethnic group. Despite being officially ruled by the last Chinese emperor of the Qing dynasty in reality Manchukuo was controlled almost entirely by Japan. In 1944 a coalition of Manchu, , , and other  led by Zhao Guangping staged a revolt against the government of Manchukuo, establishing the Second Manchu Republic. This republic, ostensibly a, was plagued by internal conflicts and was subsequently invaded and occupied by the in August 1945.

After a brief period of occupation by the Soviets Manchuria became a of the Soviet Union known as the Manchu People's Republic. A government was reformed which saw the country become a  which was ruled by the Communist Party of Manchuria, with Manchu independence negotiated by communist leader Xu Xiaobao, with the main Soviet aim being to establish a buffer state between it and the US aligned Korea. During communist rule Manchuria participated in the disastrous First Manchu-Korean War which led to the eastern provinces of Manchuria to be occupied by the newly formed. The annexation led to a controversial policy nicknamed as the "Great Exchange" which saw a mass forced relocation of thousands of Chinese Manchus into Manchuria with equally as many Han Chinese and Mongolians deported from Manchuria to China. Manchuria also tried to invade Korea again in 1979 which ended in a military stalemate. In the Manchuria experienced nationwide protests against communist rule which saw the communist government become overthrown in the Orchid Revolution, which established a multi party democracy.

After implementing some "" economic policies throughout the majority of the duration of the 1990's, Manchuria has since balanced into a,   with some of the more excessive practices of  being curbed, and have since maintained positive economic growth with steps being enacted to begin the transition Manchuria into a  economy. However the primary and secondary sectors remain large sources of income for Manchuria thanks to large resources of and other natural minerals, the continued prevalence of  as well as the large manufacturing sector that ranges from the processing of natural resources to the creation of consumer products.

Despite maintaining the 16th largest economy as measured by nominal GDP wealth inequality remains prevalent especially in the wake of the, as well as concerns over a legislature and alleged marginalisation of the minority  community. Manchuria maintains amicable relations with the majority of its neighbours and is an active member of various international organisations such as the, , , , , and the. Manchuria formally possessed nuclear weapons but dismantled them when they signed the in 2000.

Etymology
The term "Manchuria" is officially recognised as an by the Manchu government, which normally uses the term of "Manchu Republic" (滿族共和國; Mǎnzú Gònghéguó) although it is colloquially known as "Dongbei" (東北; Dōngběi) within Manchuria. "Manchuria" meanwhile comes from the translation of the  word Manshū, and has traditionally been associated with Western and   of.

The term "Manchu" comes from the name Manju, which was applied to the (who mainly resided in the northeastern parts of China) by the  emperor  who became subsequently known as the, although the Manchu people never referred to their homeland as "Manchuria". Rather, originally the Qing named these northern regions as the "three eastern provinces" (三東省; Dōng Sānshěng), but provincial changes in 1907 saw the territory renamed as the "Three Northeast Provinces" (東北三省; Dōngběi Sānshěng), and was often referred to as simply the Northeast (東北; Dōngběi) which remains the modern colloquial name for the country. Other names used to describe the region include Guandong (關東; Guāndōng) which translate to "east of the pass" or Guanwai (關外; Guānwài) which means "outside of the pass", both of which are used to describe the regions proximity with the.

When Zhao Guangping declared an independence in 1916 he named the state as the "Manchu Republic" (滿族共和國, Mǎnzú Gònghéguó; ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ ᠮ? ᠨᠵᡠ, Gungheg'o Manju) although its people colloquially referred to it as Dongbei. Internationally however it was known as Manchuria. The Japanese puppet state in Manchuria saw the region named as "" (滿洲國; Mǎnzhōuguó) which meant "Manchu State". In it was called "Manshū-koku" (満州国). In 1934 Manchukuo was renamed as the Great Empire of Manchukuo (Chinese: 大滿洲帝國, Dà Mǎnzhōu Dìguó; Japanese: 大満州帝国, Dai Manshū Teikoku). The Manchu Uprising of 1944 saw the turbulent liberal government that opposed the Japanese referred to itself as the "Manchu Republic" emulating the name of the former government of Zhao, with some commentators nicknaming it as "Liberated Manchuria" or "Republican Manchuria".

Communist Manchuria was officially known as the Manchu People's Republic (满族人民共和国, Mǎnzú Rénmín Gònghéguó; ᠨᡳᠶ? ᠯᠮ? ᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ ᠮ? ᠨᠵᡠ, Niyalmairgen Gungheg'o Manju). Communist leader Jin Guoxing requested to the countries of the to refer to the country as Dongbei. However this suggestion was never realised with the majority of countries continuing to use Manchuria, resulting in Jin's successor Xu Xiaobao to declare Manchuria as a recognised exonym. Since the Orchid Revolution there has occasionally been calls to have other countries formally agree to call Manchuria Dongbei instead over the concern that the name Manchuria is a relic of imperialism - however this has not been agreed on by any of the political parties.

Early history
Archaeological evidence shows that Manchuria has housed human life from the period onwards. Notable neolithic cultures found in modern day Manchuria include the, and  cultures.

Manchuria has been ruled by the native ethnic groups of the region such as the, , , , and  kingdoms which was mainly ruled by  (such as the ,  and  ethnic groups). The region also came under the control of various Chinese dynasties such as the, , , and. kingdoms such as the, , , and. In the latter two Korean kingdoms Tungusic aristocrats ruled rather then the previous Korean warlords. The kingdom of Balhae saw the region develop into a  society with the inhabitants starting to create their own culture unique from those of the southern regions and that of the. The continued dominance of the saw the  Khitan people of modern day  conquer surrounding regions including Manchuria in the creation of the  (officially known as the "Great Liao"). The Liao empire was the first to incorporate the entirety of modern Manchuria within its boarders. Under the Liao empire the Jurchen people (who preceded the modern day Manchu people) were tributaries to the Liao mostly living in the forests in the northeastern parts of the empire.

Jin dynasty
Around 1115 the clan of the Jurchen people enacted the  which saw the alliance between the Wanyan and the Song dynasty, who invaded the Liao dynasty with the Wanyan creating the  ("Great Jin"). The Jin soon in a series of military campaigns. A migration of occurred in the Great Jin with the former ruling Khitan people either being assimilated or exiled to. The Jin became significant for spreading from the Song dynasty throughout the region.

In 1149, grandson of Jin dynasty founder , overthrew the incumbent emperor taking over the position himself. Hailing had ambitions to rule the entirety of China, and begun the of the Jurchen people as well as move the capital from  to Yangjing (modern day ). Despite his adoption of Han traditions and encouragement of Han migration, Jurchen aristocracy remained dominant within the empire. Hailing however was brutal to what he perceived as dissident lords, having 155 Jurchen princes executed. This caused division in the Jin's ruling class, with Hailing's invasion of in 1161 prompting two rebellions in northern Jing, one by Khitan tribes, the other by Jurchen lords. Hailing was forced to call off his invasion of the Song to put down the rebellions, which severely depleted his military forces. Later defeats at and  saw Hailing and his son assassinated by his generals in December 1961. Hailing's successor spent his first years quelling the Khitran uprising. Realising the Great Jin had no military means to fight the Song dynasty, Shizong had a peace agreement negotiated with the Song, named the Treaty of Lóngxīng.

Mongolian rule
The onset of the 13th century saw frequent attacks upon the Jin by forces under the control of   which further weakened the military and political standing of the Jin. In 1211 following the Mongol invasion of Mongol forces started to invade Jin causing the. The onset of these wars caused Khitan tribesmen led by Yelü Liuge to ally with Genghis Khan, creating an ostensibly autonomous state in the upper Manchuria region despite facing attacks from the Jin that were repelled by Mongol forces. Meanwhile the Jin continued to decline thanks to internal strife such as the rebellion led by who established the state of Eastern Xia in 1215 with support from the Mongolians. Puxian however rebelled against the Mongols before being exiled to an island giving the Mongolians a chance to annexe, , and. A further rebellion among the Khitans saw Yelü ousted with the Khitan trying to also rebel against the Mongolians before they too were crushed by combined Mongolian and Korean forces from the kingdom.

Meanwhile Mongolian forces continued to attack key Jin cities such as on the  and the Jin's capital of. In 1214 Emperor abandoned the capital, where he was persuaded to attack the weakening Song so he could compensate for territory lost from the Mongols. A defeat at the and the ousting of Xuanzong by his brother  saw a peace treated enacted with the  who were allied with the Mongols. Following the death of Genghis Khan his son proceeded to along with the Song dynasty to mount an attack onto Jin, with Emperor Aizong fleeing to the city of Caizhou following the. Aizongs suicide during the in 1234 and the Mongols victory saw the end of the Jin dynasty, with their lands divided between the Mongols and the Song. Soon however disagreements between the Mongols and the Song saw the Mongols annexe the Song dynasty as well as northern regions of Manchuria inhabited by Jurchen peoples, with the whole northeast Chinese region falling completely under Mongolian control. The Mongols successfully gained suppressed further rebellions under Ögedei such as that of the in 1237.

Manchuria was put under the control of the following its creation in 1271 by. Continued Mongol rule in Manchuria saw technological innovation made with some of the first cannons ever made being manufactured in Mongolian Manchuria. The subsequent expulsion of Mongolians from China following the collapse of the Mongol kharnates saw the Tungusic aristocrats and lords still ally with the final Yuan emperor. The was able to take many southern regions of Manchuria by 1371 three years after the expulsion of the Mongols from Beijing. However, resistance still remained with the Mongolian tribe which resided in Manchuria invading Liaodong in 1375 prompting a  between Manchuria and the Ming, with the latter eventually defeating the Uriankhai.

Ming dynasty
The Ming under tried to pacify Jurchen resistance as well as finally defeat the remnants of the Yuan primarily by establishing the  which coordinated military action in Manchuria. Most notably the  led several vogues down the  and  rivers managing to coerce Jurchen chieftains to swear their loyalty with the Ming.

The death of the Yongle emperor and the ascension of the saw Ming policy in Manchuria change with expansionist ideals replaced with those that instead advocated for the strengthening of southern Manchurian territories that were controlled by the Ming. Wary of the prospect of a possible Jurchen-Mongol invasion of the Ming a smaller, simpler version of the (known as the " Liaodong Wall") was built on the boarder primarily to defend the Ming from. Despite this Chinese culture in both southern and northern regions thrived with Chinese cuisine, traditional stories and symbols, New Year, and Chinese products such as cotton spread among the Jurchen people especially those along the Amur river.

Qing dynasty
The 1580's saw a Jurchen warlord known as unified and conquered several Jurchen tribes north of the Ming boarder such as the, , and. Nurchaci proclaimed himself as the Khan of the Jing dynasty, as well as outlining a list of against the Ming dynasty. Nurhaci followed this by waging war against not only the Ming but the Mongols,, and other Jurchen tribes, greatly expanding his sphere of influence. Soon Jurchen forces started to conduct more direct attacks against the Ming, with Nurhaci committing to the aim of. The Jurchen were able to speed this invasion with Han Chinese officials defecting to Jurchen forces for the promise of being given a women from the, the royal family which Nurhaci was the patriarch. Nuhaci saw the formal adoption of the in.

Nuhaci also created the (commonly called the Bannermen) which saw military success in  and Liaoning. However in 1626 Nuhaci was killed in his first major military defeat at by Ming forces led by. His successor however continued Nuhaci's expansion into both the Ming territories and. Hong Taiji renamed the Jurchen people the as a possible indicator of his interest in expanding Manchu interests beyond Manchuria as well as utilise Han Chinese defectors to serve in his bureaucracy, in which the Khan played a highly centralised role. In 1643 Hong died leaving no clear successor, with a compromise being reached that his five year old son would be the nominal whilst his half brother  served as regent. Meanwhile the Ming started to enter an endless period of infighting amongst their senior officials as well as failing to deal with peasant rebellions. This enabled the a rebel warlord named to in April 1644 to take the capital of Beijing where the final Ming ruler the  committed suicide, ending the Ming dynasty, establishing the  in its place. Li marched his rebel forces on the, which was controlled by Ming loyalists led by. Wu decided that he would rather ally with the Manchu's then let the pass fall to the rebel forces, resulting in a joint effort by Wu's forces and the Manchu's to destroy the rebel forces in the. The battle also enabled the Manchu's to take Beijing in June 1644 with the Manchu's established the, with the emperor being named the in October. It took a further 17 years however for the Qing to take the whole of Ming territory as they battled rebels and loyalists. During this time many Han Chinese joined the Manchu bannermen, where they enjoyed various political, legal and social privileges, with the Manchu's soon becoming a minority. Despite this Manchu leaders quickly began to test their new conquests loyalty with most notably in 1645 regent Dorgon ordered a decree that forced all men to cut their hair into a or face death. The queue was seen as humiliating and a contradiction of traditional values among the Han, prompting widespread resistance especially in, which in itself prompted ethnic killings to be enacted against Han Chinese. During this time the Qing treated the region of Manchuria in a separate fashion acting akin to a highly autonomous region. The conquest of Ming territories saw the Qing name their state China (中國, Zhōngguó) which translates to "Middle Kingdom", with the Qing stressing the ethnic homogamy between Han, Manchu, Mongolian, and  people.

Regent Dorgon died in December 1650, prompting the Emperor once again to amass the majority of power although at 12 years his mother the mainly directed policy. The Shunzhi Emperor however died in 1661, seeing the ascent of the longest serving Chinese emperor the. At only 8 years of age the Kangxi Emperor was at first guided by four senior officials appointed by the Shunzhi Emperor,, , and , each chosen for their loyalty, lack of assertions for the imperial throne and to halt each other from amassing power in the same way Dorgon had done. However soon Oboi started to dominate the Qing state, having Suksaha killed whilst having Ebilun act as his loyal companion. Eventually at a mere 14 years the emperor had Oboi imprisoned, thus beginning his own personal rule. The Kangxi Emperor's long rule was marked with remarkable stability, thanks partly to the bureaucracy that the Manchu's had adopted that saw the creation of the. Respect for Confucianism saw it possible for Han Chinese to ascend the political hierarchy. Meanwhile the Manchu ruling elite were able to appeal to their roots to gather the support from the conquered Mongols, Uyghurs and Tibetans, meaning that Manchu rule remained unquestioned. Ruling such large territory however saw increased autonomy given to feudal lords such as Wu Sangui, and. In 1673, Shang petitioned for his retirement and for his son to take control over the land ceded to him by the Emperor. After the Kangxi Emperor refused to let his son succeed him Shang along with Wu and Geng initiated the in August. The insurrection lasted for 8 years with Wu trying to establish himself as the Emperor of a new dynasty, and was able to gin support mainly from people in territories south from the. Eventually a coalition of Manchu warlords led by the Emperor saw the rebel forces crushed in 1681, although southern China was ruined in the process. Following this victory the Kangxi was able to lead campaigns against the to strengthen his grip in, known as the  as well as annexe  in 1683.

The Manchurian boarder with the had always been vague with sporadic fighting taking place between the Qing and the Russians since the, with the  raging for just under 30 years with Russian brutality being widely feared in Manchuria. Fighting over the town of saw the Qing sign the, marking the Qing's first contact with a major  power. The close of the century and the end of the Kangxi Emperor's reign in 1722 saw the Qing reach the zenith of its existence with the largest economy in the world as well as being one of the largest empires by that point. During this time the Qing were able to halt mass Han emigration to Manchuria thanks to the construction of the that separated Manchuria from.

In 1722 the Kangxi emperor died leading to the appointment of the, who implemented measures that saw greater suppression of anti-Confucian and anti-Manchu ideals as well as banning and expelling all Christian missionaries. He also created a that served as the executive power behind the emperor, as well as enforce land tax from all local lords. This enabled the Yongzheng emperor to build infrastructure around his empire especially in the northern Manchurian regions, although a financial crisis still persisted. The Yongzheng emperor's death in 1735 saw his son become the who subsequently conquered larger swathes of Mongolia and  and Tibet, putting down insurgencies and uprisings. Although important cultural advancements (such as the ) were made under the Qianlong Emperor his rule soon became infamous for establishing the which hunted down and persecuted intellectuals and their families if they opposed imperial rule. The empire under the Qianlong Emperor soon began to prosper, with ample food imports coming in from and a population boom. This however soon became a detriment as overcrowding became common, with only Manchuria having large tacts of uninhabited land. The Qing in an effort to protect their homeland eventually decreed that no Han Chinese could settle in Manchuria on pain of death. The Qing court was also becoming increasingly corrupt, with the failing to put an end to the corruption despite having the most infamously corrupt man in court,, commit suicide. In 1796 the engaged in open  with the Qing. Despite the movement being crushed in 1804 the Qing's authority was starting to become increasingly non-existent.

The weakening of the Qing saw a mass migration of Han Chinese into Manchuria with many of them farming the rich, uncultivated land in Manchuria. The Qing allowed Han to migrate due to famine, floods and drought becoming increasingly common in the southern regions of China. The even had Manchu-only lands sold to Han Chinese to increase agricultural output. However, this policy was soon quickly reversed as a massive backlash from the ethnic Manchu's saw many Han Chinese expelled from Manchuria.

During this time the Qing dynasty was facing many internal and external conflicts. European colonies in and  forced the Qing to establish the  which saw all trade filtered through the port of  in southern China, thereby restricting European influence. The Britannians performed several unsuccessful attempts to open free trade with the Qing, but they refused almost every offer. Demand for Chinese goods such as silk, ceramics, and tea among others was high among European nations such as Britannia and France, but the Chinese refused all but silver to be imported into China. Frustrated with the drain on silver placed on their economies, Britannia started to import into China where its demand quickly sky-rocketed. Concerned with the overflow of silver and the effects of opium the Daoguang Emperor had his aide confiscate all opium imports into China without compensation and subsequently banned the smoking of it. In 1839 Britain declared war on China initiating the. The Chinese soon proved to be ineffective against the British with their wooden junk ships being easily outmatched by British galleons and artillery. The Qing surrendered in 1842 where they were forced to sign the humiliating which saw the Chinese open the ports of, ,  and  as well as allow the British to annexe the port of.

The was launched in opposition of the weakening Qing regime, being led by. Hong was able to establish the which outlawed slavery, arranged marriage, opium smoking and foot binding among other things, with Hong stating that he was the brother of. However internal conflict tore the kingdom apart, as well as French and British military who assisted the Qing's Imperial Army. helped secure military victory for the Qing in 1864 but not before over 20 million people died with the revolt being named the bloodiest civil war in history. During this time China was forced to sign several more humiliating treaties such as the which saw large chunk of Manchuria ceded to Russia. In 1868 Russia attempted to expel Chinese citizens from Outer Manchuria, with intense fighting breaking out in after Russian authorities shut down gold mines and forced Chinese people to leave Russia. Low intensity fighting lasted until 1892 when the Chinese were eventually driven out of Russia.

The ascension of the saw the, an attempt to preserve the Qing dynasty through the. This saw some tepid modernisation with Qing officials such as attempting to balance out  Confucian values and Western armaments. Armies were reformed with modern organisation and weapons, formed the which served as the first proper foreign ministry, and established the. The which saw the slaughter of French missionaries and nuns, prompted the French to begin. The saw France conquer the Qing vassal state of  with the Qing giving up the state in 1885, furthering weakening its geopolitical status. Relations between China and Japan further deteriorated after the Qing intervened in the failed in Korea, which in turn led to the 1885  which was a humiliating military defeat for the Qing. The Japanese aimed to take territory in Manchuria, but pressure from Britannia and Russia who had their own territorial ambitions forced Japan to abandon these claims. Nevertheless the prestige of the Qing dynasty in the international scene was rapidly receding as they became unable to govern China. Manchuria was coming under the increasing influence of Russia which helped build the.

During this time the was taking on an active role in government acting in steed of the Tongzhi Emperor alongside the. The death of the Tongzhi Emperor saw the ascend the throne, a break from the thousand year tradition of the son being the heir apparent of the throne. The which led to German missionaries being murdered saw Germany lease territory in the  which in turn saw Russia gain territory in  and Britain in. In response to this the Guangxu Emperor led the which would modernise the ruling bureaucracy and education system. Conservative opposition saw a de facto coup performed by the Empress Dowager Cixi against the emperor, although some reforms were implemented. Drought, political instability and European imperialism led many in Northern China to support the led by the Righteous and Harmonious Fists (or Boxers), a group opposed to all foreign influence in China who killed several foreigners mostly Christian missionaries. The Empress Dowager supported the rebellion causing several powers (, Britannia-France,, , , , Sierra, and the ) to form the that besieged Beijing from the 14th August 1900. Chinese defence was hard fought, but ultimately fruitless as the Empress Dowager escaped to the city of as the powers formulated a score of demands for the Qing to adhere to.

The Boxer Rebellion saw Russia invade Manchuria and kill a large amount of Manchus and Han Chinese citizens. In response to this the Chinese launched guerilla warfare against Russia, supporting the Japanese in the which saw the Japanese take control over parts of Manchuria, creating the. In 1908 both the Guangxu Emperor and the Empress Dowager Cixi died, with the Guangxu Emperor's nephew becoming the Xuantong Emperor. The Qing however were rapidly losing power especially after Puyi's father and regent appointed a cabinet that consisted primarily of members of the royal family.

From 1899 to 1911 Manchuria was hit by the after it spread following the. Local Manchu authorities sought to contain the disease by segregating the Han and Manchu populations, with the Han facing the brunt of the diseases spread resulting in the deaths of over 100,000 Han Chinese. The worst outbreak of the disease was between 1910-11.

Lack of reform, the decreasing decline of the Qing, poor living standards and liberal ideas from the west saw disgruntled military officers, students, and other revolutionaries demand for the end of Qing rule and the creation of a new modernised state. The in 1911 proved to be the catalyst for the  that saw republicans led by  declare the creation of the. Yat-sen was declared, but gave power to who led the  who had crushed revolutionaries at the. Yuan was then the prime minister of the Qing, having removed Zaifeng from the regency and appointed the in his place. Yuan oversaw the abdication of Puyi which took place in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China.

Republic of China
Following the abdication of Puyi China was officially under the rule of Yuan's republican government, with being held in 1912-13, with the  (more commonly known as the Kuomintang) winning the election. The leader and founder of the Kuomintang, was assassinated however in March 1913, possibly under the orders Yuan Shikai, after Song had campaigned for a weaker executive presidency. Yuan subsequently became more dictatorial, marginalising the Kuomintang in the national legislature whilst making executive decisions alone. These decisions included taking loans from Britannia whilst giving Outer Mongolia and Manchuria special political rights after facing pressure from Russia and Japan. Sun Yat-Sen urged members of the Kuomintang to launch a revolution against Yuan, but this was crushed resulting in Yuan centralising his power further. In 1914 the parliament was dissolved by Yuan, who restructured the provincial governments so they were ruled by loyal military governors.

In 1915 Yuan started to enforce Confucian ideals in the Chinese government, restoring the with Yuan as the Hongxian Emperor. This move was widely unpopular as was Yuan's increasing dependence on foreign loans especially to the Japanese. Yuan in the face of international isolation abolished the monarchy in March 1916 - however many provinces had already began a rebellion against Yuan who died in May. Following Yuan's death the central government became increasingly unstable as the region was thrown into a period known as the.

Warlord Era
In June 1916 following the death of Yuan Shikai a group of Manchu military officers led by Zhao Guangping took control of Manchuria, and set up of Provincial Government centred around the city of. At first the provincial administration swore loyalty to the - however following the failed  in 1917 Zhao issued the Manchu Declaration of Independence which asserted that the Manchu Republic was a sovereign state separate from China. Zhao subsequently established the Manchu National Army, which began to receive supplies and equipment from Japan as well as the Manchu Congress, a political party that served as the idealogical pillar to his regime. Zhao allowed for a lot more Japanese influence to permeate the region, with Japanese ports being established along the Manchurian coast.

Zhao soon became supported by a cadre of warlords known as the. Whilst the new Manchurian state was not part of China, neither Zhao nor the Japanese wanted the rival to take power and subsequently allowed the Changchung based Fengtian Clique to launch attacks into China Proper from Manchuria with major campaigns being undertaken in  and. The second war saw the Fengtian Clique take over Beijing, leading the Fengtian warlord to control the Beiyang government, and recognise Manchuria as an independent state.

As the president of the Manchu Republic Zhao also allowed members of the Russian  to base their far eastern operations in Manchuria, which marked Zhao out as an opponent of the new Bolshevik government of Russia. Zhao himself relied on local feudal landlords to help prop up his military junta, setting up a secret police to root out dissent which mainly came from peasants and those aligned with the Kuomintang. Zhao also began a campaign of against the Han population, being an early proponent of. Han people were forced to adopt Manchu cultural practices, with many being summarily executed most likely on ethnic grounds. Zhao's anti-Han campaign was supported by the Japanese as it helped separate Manchuria further from China proper and thus create a reliable ally in the region. Zhao's policies helped foster the idea of a Manchu state, with the Manchu people starting to see themselves as separate from the Chinese.

Zhao also sought to advance the economy of Manchuria, buying industrial goods from Japan taking advice from a small group of Japanese economists. Zhao's industrialisation polices angered some feudal landlords who formed part of Zhao's support base, causing the government to redistribute land to loyal landlords. Railroads were also built mainly to more easily facilitate trade between Manchuria and Japan. However, the economy remained largely agricultural with industrialisation efforts overall being tepid. The mining industry was nationalised with Manchuria exporting coal and steel.

However, Zhao's Manchu government received very little foreign recognition. Japan signed a friendship treaty in July 1916 formally recognising the Manchu state. Zhao sent emissaries to Akitsu,, Lan Na, and Kolhar. In 1924 Zhao evicted members of the White Army from Manchuria in a deal with the, with the Soviets and recognising Manchuria that year. However, the state failed to get recognition from European powers who treated it as a province of the Republic of China. The Kuomintang also saw Manchuria as being part of China, and never recognised its declaration of independence. Of the warlord cliques of China, only the Fengtian Clique recognised Zhao's government.

In 1926 Kuomintang  of the  in alliance with the  led a campaign known as the  against the Beiyang government in an attempt to unify China under nationalist rule. The Zhili clique was quickly defeated in Beijing, with the Fengtian clique being pushed back further into Manchuria. In 1928 defeated the Fengtian army, causing Zhang Zuolin to retreat further into Zhao's Manchu state. The Northern Expedition saw Zhao's government and the Japanese become infuriated with Zhang's defeat to the nationalists and prepare for a nationalist invasion. Fearing Zhang would defect to the Kuomintang the plotted and carried out the  which saw Zhang assassinated in a train bomb. His successor was his son who Zhao saw as more subservient.

To the shock of Zhao and the Japanese Zhang and the Fengtian Army in December 1928 declared their to the Kuomintang, who subsequently launched a war against the Manchuria. The Manchu National Army despite being trained and equipped by the Kwantung Army was ineffective against the Kuomintang, with Manchurian forces being pushed out of Fengtian in March 1929. Fighting continued until June 1929 when the Manchu Republican Army surrendered. Zhao fled to Japan and later Akitsu rather then face arrest by Chinese forces. China was finally unified under one government following the defeat of the Manchu government.

A month after the annexation of Manchuria Zhang attempted to establish Chinese control over the prompting there to be a  with the Soviet Union which saw joint Soviet-Chinese administration restored to the railway. Zhang was now the de facto dictator of Manchuria, although he remained ardently loyal to the Kuomintang supporting the nationalist government in the. However Chinese-Japanese relations were quickly deteriorating with Japan trying to exert more influence in Manchuria. Japanese intelligence minister met with former Qing Emperor Puyi where he proposed to reinstate Puyi as Emperor of Manchuria, an idea already planned by the Japanese government.

Manchukuo
In April 1931 nationalist Chinese leaders Chiang Kai-Shek, and Zhang Xueliang met at   where they asserted plans to further integrate Manchuria into China, mainly by removing Japanese influence and ending the policy of segregation between the Manchu and Han populations. This news was received poorly by Japan whose influence had slowly been diminishing in the region following the overthrow of Zhao's regime. On September 18th 1931 Japanese lieutenant Suemori Kawamoto {detonated a small amount of dynamite at the Japanese controlled. The blast itself did very little damage, but this event known as the sparked claims within Japan that the bomb had been placed by Chinese saboteurs.

Responding to this apparent threat Japan mobilised the and launched a full-blown  of Manchuria on the 19th September. The Japanese quickly captured cities such as Changchung,, , , , , and. By September 25th the cities of and  were also captured with Japan having full control over the  and  provinces. Japan faced much more resistance when it tried to take the province in the form of the  led by, as well as continued fighting in the south led by Zhang. The successful however saw Japan consolidate power in southern Manchuria allowing them to move north. Nationalist general tried to  the city of Harbin, but on the 27th February 1927 Ting surrendered to Japanese forces. Resistance remained in Manchuria, which was subsequently by the Japanese for several years following the invasion.

On the 18th February 1932 the (commonly referred to as "Manchukuo") was declared with the former Qing Emperor Puyi being appointed as its head of state. The state was officially an independent nation envisioned as a homeland for the Manchu people, although in practice it was a of Japan who exerted an enormous amount of political and military power over the weak government which was little more then a rubber stamp.

In 1934 Manchukuo officially became a with Puyi being  as Emperor Kāngdé. Political power however continued to be monopolised in the hands of the Kwantung Army who ruled through the which itself was based on  parties of Europe. The government itself was, and  with Manchukuo being one of the most repressive states in East Asia. Despite calls within Manchukuo to reinforce the segregation between Manchus and Han Chinese the government instead aimed to unite the different ethnic groups of Manchukuo. This was likely because Japan saw Manchukuo as the first step in the creation of what would become the, with Manchukuo possibly being built up as an ideal Asian state.

Manchukuo however did face massive economic growth having one of the largest industrial bases in Asia, being only beaten by Japan and the Soviet Union. Manchukuo also had its own and currency, the. In the late 1930's Manchukuo produced more steel then Japan itself, with coal production exceeding 10,000,000 tonnes. Japan was keen to invest in Manchukuo's industrial activities and to a lesser extent its agricultural sector which included the cultivation of soy, corn, cotton, wheat and opium poppies. Despite Manchukuos economic success, production was prioritised for the Kwantung Army with Manchukuo being little more then a colony that Japan used to extract resources. Land was redistributed with Japanese farmers gaining the best land, and the traditional farmers being sent to small collective farms.

The continued resistance in Manchukuo came from members of the Kuomintang, the Communist Party of China, and Soviet aligned groups. One of these was the Communist Party of Manchuria, which splintered from the CPC 1932, and soon became one of the largest resistance groups receiving backing from the USSR. The was established to stamp out resistance which included members of the Kuomintang who had infiltrated the government.

Manchukuo became a base for which Japan was able to launch attacks into China from in the. Despite the Kuomintang and the nationalists to combat the Japanese, the Communist Party of Manchuria instead resolved to launch operations against Manchukuo without CPC help which in turn resulted in a split in the Chinese communist movement that was never again unified. Japan also became involved in short boarder wars with and the  - in both of them Manchukuo was used once again as the staging post Japan attacked from. Both wars resulted in the signing of the in 1941 which saw the USSR officially recognise Manchukuo.

The outbreak of in  and Japan's singing of the  saw Manchukuo be recognised by several fascist European states. These were:, , , , , , , , and. The Japanese controlled recognised Manchukuo as did  and Lan Na. , the and  also established relations with Manchukuo. During World War Two Manchukuo continued to be used as Japan's stronghold in mainland Asia, holding several naval vessels during the.

In late 1944 discontent against the Japanese was starting to arise in Manchukuo, being spurred by Japan's military losses in the pacific and China. These feelings were exacerbated by a successful communist insurgent movement in Manchukuo led by Jin Guoxing which had helped fuel anti-Japanese sentiment. In August 1944 Zhao Guan returned to China alongside former members of the Manchu National Army, reforming the Manchu Congress as the Manchu Revolutionary National Cong which soon became an armed guerilla movement against the government of Manchukuo. In September 1944 Zhao formed an alliance with the Communist Party, and led a full insurrection against the Japanese rallying support from peasants. The Japanese were caught off guard by the rebellion, which was directed against the Japanese and Han collaborators. Fighting was mainly concentrated in the north where the communists had been fighting for over a decade, and where was most prevalent.

The city of Harbin was captured in December 1944 by rebel forces leading to the proclamation of the creation of the Second Manchu Republic with Zhao being declared as its Premier. Despite this the newly founded republic was beset by conflict from the start - it controlled very little territory and was embroiled in a war against the Japanese and the Manchukuo government. The new government itself was also unstable, with Zhao being assassinated just over a month after taking power. The government consisted of a large coalition of different political ideologues ranging from, , , , , , and with the only real uniting ideas being that of anti-Japanese sentiment and. The two dominant factions were the nationalists of the Manchu Revolutionary National Congress and the Communist Party. Zhao's successor Qian Wanyong tried to evict the communists from the government and centralise power in the hands of the Manchu Revolutionary National Congress, but soon faced civil unrest and political violence in republican held territory. Refusal to compromise resulted in Qian's forced resignation in April, which saw the communists gain greater control of the government, with Qian's successor Song Yixin being a much more passive leader. With greater political cooperation republican troops were able to make huge gains in Manchuria despite being attacked from the west by Japanese troops in.

The in Europe and subsequent surrender of Germany saw the Japanese start to prepare for an invasion from the United States. This enabled the nationalists to push forward into Manchukuo, with Japanese control soon being limited to the Fengtian province. The government however was aware that with Japan facing invasion then the would soon resume, and that eventually Manchuria would be annexed by either the Kuomintang or the CPC without foreign support. Jin Guoxing's deputy, Xu Xiaobao, visited the Soviet Union in May, ostensibly to get political recognition. However the Soviet Union was obliged to invade Manchuria as per agreements made at the and  conferences once Nazi Germany surrendered. Xu instead managed to negotiate an agreement that would see the Soviets occupy the region of Manchuria for a period of two years during which a communist government would be created and led by Jin.

The Soviets began the on the 9th August 1945 where they were assisted by the Communist Party of Manchuria. Both the Manchu Republican Army and the Kwangtung Army were quickly defeated as the Soviets occupied Mengjiang, southern, and the. The Kwangtung Army were able to temporarily halt the Soviets as the before being overrun. The rapid defeat of Japanese forces in Manchuria is attributed to one of the reasons of their in September alongside the. Manchuria fell under military occupation where the Communist Party of Manchuria under Jin were already centralising power with former members of the Manchukuo and republican governments such as and Song Yixin being arrested. Puyi was placed under house arrest after being forced to abdicate.

Communist Manchuria
In August 1946 the Soviets ended their occupation with the Manchu People's Republic being established in its stead. Rigged elections were held which saw the Communist Party win a majority of seats in the Supreme People's Assembly with Jin Guoxing being inaugurated as premier. Jin immediately began building up his newly formed Manchu People's Army drawing from the ranks of the the former and remaining members of the Kwangtung Army. Jin also allowed the Chinese Communists to use Manchuria as a base in which they were able to launch attacks from into the territory surrounding Beijing which was held by the Kuomintang. Despite this early tensions began to arise between and Jin, with the former bitter regarding the decision by the Soviets to allow Manchuria to become an independent state. Nevertheless Manchuria was one of the first nations to recognise the on October 1st 1949.

Manchuria quickly became a   with all power being centralised in the hands of the Communist Party. The strong industrial base of Manchuria allowed the government to quickly invest in heavy industry and state infrastructure. Typical of postwar communist states like those of the all industry came under the control of the state. Land reform was also enacted with all farms being collectivised, effectively breaking the power of the Japanese farmers. Political dissent was ruthlessly repressed with a secret police service (named the People's Security Secretariat, or the RAMC) being created to monitor the population with concentration camps being established to house enemies of the state. Unlike the process undertaken in Europe many lower ranking bureaucrats of the Manchukuo regime retained government positions, with the RAMC being mainly made up of former members of the Hoankyoku. Jin had a large, expansive cult of personality built around himself.

However the Manchurian government where still worried that the Soviet Union would withdraw support for the government and allow China to annexe the country. In order to counter this the Manchurian government supported communist insurgents in neighbouring Korea, primarily from the. On the 28th June 1950 Manchuria invaded Korea on the pretence of protecting national boarders, taking the city of and installing  as the head of a puppet government setting off the First Manchu-Korean War. The Manchurian invasion of Korea saw the League of Nations send a coalition of nations led by the and Britain aid Korean forces. A few months into the conflict saw Manchuria make its greatest territorial gains, taking the Korean capital of.

However, the war took a turn for the worse for Manchuria in late 1950 when the leader of the LN coalition led an amphibious assault into the Liaodong Peninsula. Coalition forces subsequently overran the western and southern Manchurian provinces. The Manchurian army's failure to counteract this is due to the armies inept leadership who were more concerned on assisting Korean communist forces then defending Manchuria, and weak army loyalty. However, the coalitions advance brought them to the Manchurian-Chinese boarder, which saw Chinese troops move into Manchuria helping repel coalition forces, and enforcing a military occupation on the eastern most provinces. Fighting continued mainly centred around Pyongyang and Seoul until a ceasefire was negotiated on the 30th July 1953 which saw Manchuria withdraw troops from Korea and give over Kim Il-sung to Korean authorities, pulling back all support for the communist Korean government.

The war was a disaster for Manchuria, who was in debt to China and the USSR. Eastern territory in Manchuria was placed under Chinese military occupation. The Manchu government tried to negotiate the removal of Chinese troops from the region, but in response the Chinese regime claimed sovereignty over the land. The Manchurian government threatened to use military force until the Tianjin Agreement was signed, which saw Manchuria rescind their territorial claims of the region and give it to China facing pressure from the Soviet Union.

The Tianjin Agreement meant that Jin Guoxing reputation within the politburo was severely damaged. Xu Xiaobao, his deputy, soon ousted him from the party leadership before enacting the Black River Protocol which aimed to make Manchuria a regional power within the and to enact "reform from within". Within the communist party Xu and his supporters accused dissidents of propagating and  beliefs, leading too a mass purge within the party. As part of the Black River Protocol Xu also ostensibly reformed the leadership structure of the party, stripping away power from the politburo alone and delegating it to layers of bureaucracy. Although this on the surface gave the appearance of a more decentralised leadership in reality the complex structure of the party was left entirely in the hands of its first secretary, thus ensuring Xu retained absolute power.

Xu also changed the state propaganda of Manchuria, dismantling Jin's cult of personality and instead installing complete admiration for the party. The general populace of Manchuria were barred from almost all knowledge of the political process with only those permitted to ascend within the party's ranks having any idea of the political structure of Manchuria. Xu also modernised the army, buying a large amount of Soviet weapons and regularly deploying troops on the Korean boarder, giving the illusion to the west that Manchuria's military was much more powerful then it was in reality.

In 1955 Manchuria started a nuclear program, initially intended to be for power purposes only. However within six months the program had been expanded to include a weapons research unit that begun work on creating a nuclear weapon. Manchuria also began developing other weapons of mass destruction such as chemical weapons. The rationale behind this development was stated in documents to the Soviet Union, which indicated that the Manchu government was fearful of Chinese or American aggression. The program was supported by the Soviet Union's premier who himself had fallen out with Mao's China setting off the. Soviet scientists were instrumental in building up Manchuria's nuclear weapons program, aiding them in the enrichment of uranium and the production of nuclear facilities. The first nuclear test was conducted in 1973 with Manchuria creating a land based ballistic missile program, to the widespread condemnation of the international community.

However, the most controversial provision of the Black River Protocol was the "promotion of the resurgence of the Manchu nationality". This resulted in the of Han Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Mongolian people's in Manchuria, who were subject to segregation and oppression from the Manchu government. Many were forced to adopt Manchu customs, with all languages save Mandarin and Manchu being banned. It also led to the "Great Exchange" which was first outlined in the Tianjin Agreement when thousands of Han Chinese were deported into China whilst Manchu's in China were similarly shipped over to Manchuria, causing a mass dislocation of communities in both countries. Many Japanese and Koreans were sent to re-education camps where they faced systematic oppression.

In 1967 Xu died of natural causes, causing there to be a short leadership struggle within the communist party. Xu's delegation of power meant that their was no clear successor and in any case, none of them would be able to handle the government in the same iron grip Xu had done. In place of this a semi-collective leadership was put in place mainly made up of technocrats, led by Wan Shuangjiang. There was considerable debate within the party whether to reform and possibly forge closer ties with China, or continue following the Black River Protocol. The lack of unity within the party led Wan to continue the Black River Protocol, although the ethnic oppression was officially ended in 1971.

During the 1970's however there was a shift in idealogical orthodoxy, with gradual liberalisation measures being undertaken mainly in the cultural realm. Censorship was relaxed, and certain western products and cultural customs were permitted to exist in Manchuria. The economy also diversified somewhat - although remaining centrally planned, there was a greater focus outside of heavy industry, with substantial development being invested into, and. Manchuria also invested more into education and healthcare, which saw literacy rates and the general standard of living rapidly increase. In 1950 the average life expectancy was 41 years old - by 1979 it had risen to 65 years. The literacy rate in 1975 stood at 81% for those over 18.

Despite this tepid liberalisation being undertaken, Manchuria still was close to the Eastern Bloc, joining alongside  in 1972 as well as supporting various other communist movements such as those in Vietnam,, ,  and Lan Na. Manchuria also supported North Vietnamese and Lao forces in the.

Manchuria also continued to aggravate its neighbours, with various members of the CPM continuing to claim the land annexed by China in 1953. There were also common disputes on the Manchu-Korean boarder, with Manchuria at times claiming that Korea was sending spies into its territory. In 1978 a Korean spy named Lee Kwan-jin defected over to Manchuria and revealed secrets about the Korean government. This resulted in condemnation from Korea and its western allies, who requested to have Lee handed over to Korean authorities. The Manchu government refused, bolstering their boarder defences. In 1979 Korean dictator was assassinated by, who was discovered to have been taking bribes from the Manchu government. It was widely believed that the Manchu government had somewhat planned Park's assassination. Park's death resulted in several Korean communists near the Manchu boarder to proclaim a provisional communist government. This short lived communist government was heavily funded by Manchuria, who sent a sizeable contingent of troops to aid the Korean communists.

However, Manchuria was careful not to commit to the war as they did in the 1950's, fearing they could repeat the same mistakes as they had done in the first war. The Korean government tried to destroy the communist government quickly with American and Japanese assistance. Only two months into the war the communist stronghold of was besieged by Korean forces, causing Manchuria to sanction the use of chemical and gas weapons amongst the Korean communists with  being especially used against Korean troops. Manchuria sent more military advisers to the Korean communist government to try and prolong the war, but six months after its start the Korean communist government collapsed. Manchuria signed another ceasefire with Korea, promising to pull military troops out of Korea if the latter lifted sanctions.

In 1983 Tao Shiyou became the First Secretary of the CPM, the Premier and the Minister of the Interior, thus becoming the most powerful person in Manchuria since Xu Xiaobao. Tao led a moderate reformist movement that saw further liberalisation carried out, although again this was mainly superficial. The political process was still completely barred to the majority of the general populace and repression still remained especially for Koreans, who were subject to more discrimination after the Second Manchu-Korean war. Despite this Tao's reformist measures were seen with suspicion amongst the conservative leadership of the Soviet Union. To further this suspicion Manchuria started to take loans from the west to pay for its ambitious infrastructure and military projects. Some political analysts suggested that under Tao there would be a Manchu-Soviet split.

In 1985 following the ascension of within the Soviet Union and the enactment of  and, the CPM started to become rife with internal dissent. Some radical reformists wanted to implement similar reforms in Manchuria, whilst others advocated for policies similar to the in North Vietnam or. Meanwhile hardliners campaigned for the retention of the Black River Protocol alongside Maoists and. In March 1986 Tao announced his intentions to formally end the Black River Protocol, prompting outrage amongst conservatives within the party. Less then a week after proclaiming the end of the Black River Protocol Tao was disposed in coup led by Huang Jiongming, who quickly reinstated the Black River Protocol. Huang however did not have the full support of the party, which was at a huge risk of collapsing within itself. As such Huang was forced to reach a compromise with the reformists, ushering in some half hearted and largely ceremonial changes. Nevertheless at this point the regime remained fragile, thanks to the disunited nature of the party.

Following the political changes in and the rest of the Eastern Bloc in the summer of 1989, protests were staged around the entire of Manchuria, demanding political reform. The protests started in the city of Dalian by students led by Wang Ximing, Li Ling, and Li Dongfang after several students were arrested for flying the flag of the first Manchu republic. This soon led to wider protests that were mainly staged in the north. Strikes were also held in many factories with many underground trade unions starting to form. The Party Secretary for Dalian, Du Changhao, sided with the protesters forming the Popular Front for Democracy and Revolution which was the first major opposition movement, being an umbrella group of labour unions, students and other opponents of the regime as well as the remnants of the original Manchu Revolutionary National Congress.

The regime were at first divided over how to react to the protests. Some hardliners advocated to crack down on the protesters as had happened in, although many others feared that the situation could devolve into civil war as had happened in. The party sent in security forces to try and break up the protests, although this was a failure. In November student protester Wang Ximing was shot by authorities, causing an explosion of protests across the country.

On the 29th December several high ranking officials broke off from the party, calling for multi party elections and forming the National Liberal Party. The CPM promptly descended into chaos, with Huang failing to keep control. Hardliners tried to clamp down of both party dissidents and protesters before being blocked by reformists. On the 30st December Huang was demoted from the position of Premier, being replaced by Yuan Xiang. Yuan announced that multi-party elections would be held in January 1990, representing the CPM. The GZD agreed to form an electoral coalition with the Manchu Revolutionary National Congress led by Du Changhao, known as the Popular Front. In the 1990 elections Du was nominated as the Popular Front's premieral candidate. The 1990 elections the Popular Front not only gained a majority in the legislature, but also saw Du elected as premier. On the 27th January, the Manchu People's Republic was formally dissolved and the Manchu Republic created.

Third Republic
The Du-led government pursued policies, being part of the  movement. The police state was entirely dismantled, all political prisoners freed and cultural censorship lifted, and the military decoupled from politics. Social liberal policies were encouraged as part of a policy of national reconciliation between the communists and the new government. For the first time Manchuria was marked as being a free nation politically although corruption remained.

The new government quickly renounced communism, privatising most of the state owned industries, cutting subsidies, abolishing price controls and lessening regulations. The new economic policies saw Manchuria's economy grow at a rapid pace, although it also saw a rise in poverty and decline in the general standard of living. Du who identified as a introduced some financial regulation and increased government spending trying to maintain a balanced budget whilst aiming to reform Manchuria into a. Du also pursued a more open foreign policy, reaching out to both Japan, China and Korea which was considered controversial due to Manchuria's strained relations with those countries. Under Du Manchuria voluntarily ended its nuclear weapons program singing the in 1993.

During the Du years however the coalition ran into several difficulties. A large portion of the population had become dissatisfied with Du's leadership which was becoming increasingly whilst decisions were being made by   such as Sheng Xi. In 1995 the government voted to extend the two-child policy causing the National Liberal Party to walk out of government, ending the Popular Front. During the 1995 premierial elections Du was re-elected for the second time, with the MRNC gaining more seats in the Supreme National Assembly then any other party. Manchuria was experiencing a deep recession with unemployment sky-rocketing. This prompted the financial secretary Jin Pai Nai to propose for the end to the government's economic reform policy, most notably scrap plans to deregulate the banks and privatise the railways and health service. Du agreed to Jin's proposals, causing the right wing of the MNRC to threaten to walk out of government. As such as a compromise the International Free Trade Act of 1997 which struck down the previous protectionist policies enforced. In 1998 mass anti-corruption protests saw Du tried to enforce martial law, but such a proposal was blocked by the Manchu parliament. Eventually Du promised to launch the so-called anti corruption campaign, limiting the influence of oligarchs through a series of high-profile court cases. Following a huge dip in his popularity Du stepped down as Premier in 2000, with his successor being the MNRC candidate Jin Pai Nai.

Jin's government was very much a continuation of Du's, emphasising centrist and nationalist policies. Under Jin many of the oligarchs who had gained favour under Du however lost power, being replaced by a new class of businessmen who were allies of Jin and became a powerful lobbying force in politics alongside the powerful families and businesses. During the 2000's the economy grew at a rapid rate as Manchuria experienced an economic boom. The government also helped push through labour and women's rights laws as well as implement some more right wing policies such as privatisation the postal service and deregulation the banking sector. However corruption remained a chronic problem as did wealth inequality and a growing national debt. Manchuria's relations with Japan, Korea and South Vietnam declined whilst relations with Russia and China improved. Relations with other nations in East Asia (such as, , , Akitsu and North Vietnam) also improved as Manchuria sought to widen its trade links.

The 2008 Banking Crisis saw Manchuria's property bubble burst with the country being hit by recession. The Popular Front was slow to react to the crisis, before Jin decided bail out the banks which raised the deficit substantially. Against the advice of his finance minister, to combat the huge deficit, Jin also approved of austerity measures which were supported by the GZD and the majority of the MRNC. The austerity measures soured relations between the oligarchs who supported Jin, who pushed for a premierial election as quickly as possible. Jin resigned from office in November 2009 appointing his vice-premier Wen Feng as his replacement. Wen easily won the 2009 premierial election and shifted the MNRC from the centre left to the centre right, having allied himself with business oligarchs.

The new government aimed to reduce both the debt and deficit that was stunting economic growth, continuing austerity policies and cutting welfare spending. The coalition also rolled back some of the policies of social liberalisation with the enactment of the 2014 Bill of Anti-Terrorism and Security which severely curtailed civil liberties and gave sweeping powers to the law enforcement forces. Nevertheless the early 2010's saw steady economic growth although this coincided with growing inequality. In 2013 controversy erupted when the government was implicated in mishandling public funds and redirecting them towards several businesses owned by the Premier Wen, who subsequently resigned passing power to his Vice-Premier and fellow rightist Li Zhou who became the first female Premier of Manchuria, a position that was legitimised after she held a premerial election in 2013 that saw her win over other candidates.

Politics
Manchuria is officially a    with a  legislature. The Constitution of Manchuria serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which establishes a clear separation of powers. However for much of its history Manchuria was an. From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a  that ended in 1990 following peaceful street protests around Manchuria that became known as the Orchid Revolution. In 1990 Manchuria adopted its current constitution, becoming a democracy. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria still dominate politics.

The Premier of Manchuria serves both as the and the  with the Vice-Premier being their deputy. Manchurian politics are split between various parties with the the largest being the Manchu Revolutionary National Congress, a  party which has continually governed since 1993. Currently the MNRC is in government with the current premier and MRNC leader Li Zhou is the first female head of state and government of Manchuria. The main opposition parties include the  New Progressive Party, the   Communist Party of Manchuria and the   Qinglonghui. The legislature of Manchuria is known as the Supreme National Assembly and consists of 685 seats. The majority of Manchurian politicians have technical backgrounds, making a de facto.

Government
Manchuria has. The executive branch is headed by the Premier (sometimes referred to as "President") whilst legislative power is vested in the unicameral Supreme National Assembly. The judiciary is structured in a three-tier system - the highest court is the Supreme Judicial Yuan which is followed by Provincial and Municipal courts.
 * The head of state and government is the Premier of Manchuria who is also the of the armed forces. The Premier leads the Executive Yuan, a cabinet of Ministers who form the Manchurian government. There are several government departments such as the Ministry of Finances, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Defence. The Premier has the power to declare war, dissolve the Supreme National Assembly (with judicial support), ratify treaties, grant pardons, and exercise executive power. The Premier can be subject to a  by the Supreme National Assembly or face impeachment if they deemed to be breaking the constitution. Premier's are elected directly to serve five year terms, of which they can serve a maximum of two. Their deputy is the Vice-Premier. Currently Li Zhou serves as the Premier and Yu Qiang the Vice-Premier.
 * The legislative branch of Manchuria is the Supreme National Assembly, a 685 member body that is tasked with drafting, amending, passing and repealing laws. The Supreme National Assembly also is host to various Committees that scrutinise government activities and legislation, with the Committees being made up of members of the Assembly. The Assembly is led by a Chairman who is a partisan figure, setting out the legislative agenda for the majority party in the legislature as well as sponsoring other legislation and overseeing debates. The Assembly also hosts the Official Opposition of Manchuria which is made up of the second largest party or coalition within the Assembly, and whose role it is to sponsor legislation from the opposition parties as well as hold the majority party/Chairman to account. 490 seats within the Assembly are elected using and 195 represent single-member districts who are elected using the . The Assembly is elected every 5 years unless it is dissolved by the Premier with the support of the judiciary in a time of emergency.

Elections
Legislative and premierial elections are held every five years in Manchuria. The Premier is elected using with the candidate with the highest number of votes (whether that be a majority or a plurality) being inaugurated as Premier. If a Premier resigns or dies in office then a premierial election for their replacement must be held within 60 days, who will serve a new five year term.

Elections for the Supreme National Assembly must be held every five years. The Assembly is elected in a system of voting of the  and. 195 seats within the Assembly represent districts which send a single representative to the Assembly. Candidates within these districts are elected via the alternative vote. The other 490 seats are proportionally elected with citizens voting for parties and individuals on a closed list with seats allocation being calculated using the. There is a 3% threshold for parties to enter the Assembly, although independent candidates only need to gain a single seat.

Ever five years co-current with legislative elections local provincial and municipal elections are carried out. Such elections use the same process as the legislative elections with provincial and municipal governments being elected on a proportional basis.

Political Parties

 * Main article: List of Political Parties in Manchuria

Manchuria officially uses, but in practice is by the Manchu Revolutionary National Congress, a  party. Generally the MNRC appeal to support from various strands of the Manchuria right/left wing co-opting policies from both sides of the political spectrum. Currently the MNRC hold a plurality of seats in the Supreme National Assembly at 285, with the premier of Manchuria being MRNC member Li Zhou. The NRC under Li have so far promoted, and  policies showing opposition to  and both  and  economic practices.

The New Progressive Party, currently led by Feng Huiyin, is the main opposition in the Supreme National Assembly having the second largest amount of seats at 212 seats. The NPP officially support the so-called Auspicious Path to Progress, but has been ideologically split in the past between influenced by the  and. It was originally formed by former Premier Du Changhao. The NPP are in a coalition within the Progressive Alliance for Manchuria with the Democratic Union for Change and the Green Party - overall the Alliance holds 233 seats. The third largest party in the Supreme National Assembly is the Communist Party of Manchuria. Prior to the 2010 legislative elections they were the second largest party in Manchuria, having ruled Manchuria as a single party socialist state between 1946 to 1990. It remains one of the most successful communist parties in the world having 103 seats, retaining policies. In recent years however it has shifted slightly to advocate for New Communism, which is still remembered fondly by many Manchurians.

The fourth largest party in the Supreme National Assembly is the Qinglonghui (Azure Dragon Society) which is also the oldest party in Manchuria. The Qinglonghui are a party which have been accused of supporting  policies. It currently has 23 seats.The fifth largest party in the legislature is the National Liberal Party. The GZD is a party that is a heavy advocate for. Some have commented that the GZD often appeals to sentiment in Manchuria as well as gaining support from the growing number of  in Manchuria. The GZD have 21 seats. Finally the smallest seated party is the United People's Party with 20 seats and primarily represents the interests of in Manchuria. It is allied with the New Progressive Party with both supporting liberalism.

Minor national parties in Manchuria include the Libertarian Party, the People's Labour Party, the Workers' Party, Nationalist Party, Future for Manchuria, Social Democratic Party, New Development Association, Mongolian Democratic Movement, Citizens for Progress and Democracy, Innovation Party of Manchuria and Republican Justice Party.

Military and intelligence services
The armed forces of Manchuria is known as the Manchu National Defence Force, which is split into an army, navy, airforce, coast guard and republican guards. The MNDF currently has around 1,228,300 troops overall (416,800 active and 871,500 in reserve), making it overall the 12th largest military force in terms of manpower (ahead of the but behind the ). There are some paramilitary forces in Manchuria that cooperate with the MNDF.

The Premier of Manchuria is the commander-in-chief of the MNDF, which answers to the Ministry of Defence. Military affairs are primarily handled by the Joint Command, a council of military commanders who are subordinate to the ministry of defence. The military in Manchuria have traditionally played almost no role in politics, as under communist rule the top ranks in the military were occupied by party officials. Since democratisation the military have been kept subordinate to the civilian government.

The predecessor to the MDF, the Manchu People's Defence Force (MPDF), primarily received military equipment from the. The MDF largely uses ex-Soviet weaponry such as, , , , and  tanks. Recently Manchuria has started purchasing weaponry and equipment from, Britain and.

Manchuria has a history of possessing. During the 1960's it was known that Manchuria had produced several nuclear warheads, ostensibly on the grounds that they were a deterrent against Chinese and Korean aggression. It was thought that Manchuria's nuclear weapons program was largely sponsored by the USSR, and at it's height had around 25 warheads. In 1993 Premier Du Changhao dismantled Manchuria's nuclear weapons program after facing sanctions from the international community, and had Manchuria sign the the same year. Manchuria has not signed the and has been accused of possessing chemical weapons such as  and  - however this has not been proven as of 2015. Manchuria has admitted that it possess facilities that produce chemical weapons, but asserts that they are inactive. Manchuria has been placed under sanctions by the and  due to Manchuria's refusal to sign the CWC.

Conscription (known as "Patriotic Civic Service") is currently enforced for all citizens between the ages of 18-21. It was introduced in 1946 for all male citizens, with not being recognised by the government, with only those deemed "unfit for service" being exempted. The government mandated that women also be included in conscription in 1950. In 1996 the government pursued an unsuccessful venture to abolish conscription, but instead comprised by allowing conscripts to opt to enter another form of civil service and recognising conscientious objection. Conscription lasts for 18 months in Manchuria, with university students able to postpone conscription until they graduate. "" is punished harshly in Manchuria. Polls show that public support for the conscription programme continues.

The Manchurian Intelligence Services are overseen by the Ministry of Interior. The intelligence forces are divided into three branches - the External Security Secretariat (foreign intelligence) Internal Security Secretariat (domestic intelligence) and the Military Security Secretariat (military intelligence)). Previously the intelligence services were administrated under one body (known as the People's Security Secretariat) before being split into three bodies in 1990 in order to limit the intelligence services power. The intelligence services mainly serve to gather intelligence on behalf on the Manchu state, and are notable in that all three bodies closely collaborate with each other. The Manchurian intelligence services have been accused of detaining people for political reasons, exercising torture, and running widespread surveillance programs. An anti-corruption campaign aimed at the intelligence services was launched in July 2015.

Foreign Relations
Manchurian foreign policy is conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, currently headed by He Chaoxing. Manchuria pursues a largely neutral foreign policy being a member of several organisations such as the League of Nations,, , , , , , , , , , and the.

Manchuria was for a long time a of the, and thus has built up good relations with. A large diaspora of Manchurians (65,213) lives in the former territories of (that being the  and ) with immigration taking place in the early 1960's during the "" of. Relations between the former Czechoslovakia and Manchuria remain good to this day, with Manchuria having signed extensive trade agreements especially with the Czech Republic. Manchuria also has positive economic and political relations with other ex-communist states such as, , , and the.

Manchuria has sought to maintain positive relations with. During Soviet rule Russia played a huge part in Manchu politics, encouraging the state to attack Korea as well as providing substantial economic, political and military assistance. Russia also helped create Manchuria's nuclear weapons program. As such Manchurian-Russian relations have remained cordial, with Manchuria taking a neutral position regarding the.

Since 1990 Manchuria has aimed to create good relations with the. Following the First Manchu-Korean War a large number of Manchurian refugees fled the country eventually settling in the Kingdom of Sierra who currently house the fourth largest overseas population of Manchurians. Relations with Sierra remain overwhelmingly positive - notably in 2007 both countries signed the Tijuana Pact, the biggest free-trade deal Manchuria had signed with a single nation. Manchuria also maintains cordial relations with the, and the , although in recent years Manchuria has voiced some reservations over. Of European countries, Manchuria has especially good relations with Britain, and.

Following the end of the Cold War Manchuria has cultivated good relations with, being one of the main purchasers of Israeli military equipment. Previously Manchuria refused to recognise Israel and supported the. Manchuria's hardline pro-Arab stance saw it cut off ties with following the  as well as support the Qatifi government on the Qatifi Civil War. During the 1990's Premier Du Changhao created especially good relations with Israel which caused Manchuria to fall out with its traditional Arab allies such as Qatif and, although in response Manchuria moved closer to Israel and Egypt. Notably following the Manchuria remained one of the few nations to retain strong diplomatic links with. During the 2000's Manchuria entered a period of rapprochement with Syria and, although the Manchurian government remained committed to supporting Israel. The has seen Manchuria tentatively support the government of.

Economy
Manchuria currently maintains the 16th largest economy in the world if measured by at $935.5 billion a year. The Manchurian economy has been one of the strongest in although it has not reached the economic growth of the  (, Korea,  and South Vietnam) with the  still being relatively small compared to  economies in Europe. The national currency of Manchuria is the Manchu Yuan. Manchuria mainly exports goods to, Korea, South Vietnam, and whilst receives imports from China and the.

Manchuria was the first industrialised region in the Qing dynasty, and has since become highly urbanised thanks to its large deposits. However Manchuria did not achieve a smooth transition from a  to a   one, with   being implemented following the fall of the communist regime. This rapid wave of resulted in widespread poverty and poverty to occur in Manchuria as well as a rise in corruption. In response to this successive governments sought to reintroduce regulation and protectionist policies into the economy overseeing the transition into a balanced, which has resulted in less unemployment.

The saw inflation in Manchuria rise substantially, with  policies and  being enacted in order to curtail the worst effects of this inflation. Although this has seen a marked increase in the growth of the economy with the GDP rising by 2.8% in 2013 wealth inequality has skyrocketed with Manchuria having a higher inequality rating then its neighbours and Korea. The government have since however tried to maintain a consistent path to growth adopting less radical economic policies and establishing a largely stable fiscal situation.

Manchuria still retains a largely with the main industries including, , , and  manufacture. Manchuria also has a large industry as well as maintaining several  refining facilities. Manchuria also has an active agricultural sector with its main exports being,  and. Southern Manchurian lands provide ample conditions to raise and, although farming has declined steadily ever since the mass industrialisation seen in the communist era.

Education
Education in Manchuria is divided into primary, secondary and tertiary education. Educational facilities are managed by the Ministry of Education who also set the National Curriculum which guarantees nationwide educational topics. Private schools are exempt from the National Curriculum, but must have their own standards approved by the Ministry of Education.

Following the Communist takeover the government prioritised education amongst other things, implementing a system of with literacy rates rising substantially. All education was controlled by the Orgburo (Ministry) of Education and funded through state assets until 1991 when the government allowed private schools to be established. The same year subsidies for tertiary education were removed. As of 2015 literacy rates amongst those over 18 stand at 96.5% with most illiteracy being concentrated in rural area.

Education is compulsory up until the age of 18. Prior to education most children attend kindergartens (which are privately run) which lasts from the years of 3 to 5. At five children are enrolled into primary schools, which they attend for five and a half days. Lessons are divided into 45 minute blocks with most schools starting around 8:45AM and ending at 5:30PM. At a primary level students start by learning, , , and. Around the third year, and  are introduced, whilst in the fourth year  and  are taught as well. For the first two years pupils are in classes of mixed ability. They are then streamlined in the third year into different sets based on ability, and are subject to being promoted or relegated to a higher or lower set based on academic performance. Students remain in primary education until the age of 11 where they sit National Standardised Primary Examinations. Students must pass in Chinese, Manchu, mathematics and science before entering Middle School.

Middle school lasts from the age of 11 to 14. ,, , and are introduced as subjects. Science is also divided into, , and whilst students are required to learn another language (usually  or ). Middle school is structured similarly to primary school, with students being streamlined by the second year and lessons consisting of 45 minute blocks. The end of Middle School sees students take National Standardised Secondary Examinations where students are expected to pass in the 4 core subjects. From the age of 14 to 18 students are enrolled into lower high school where they take the 4 core subjects alongside physical education and information technology as well as two social sciences and either design technology or one of the arts. National Standardised Tertiary Exams are taken at the age of 16 were students must pass the core subjects to enter Upper High school. From there students can either enter vocational schools that specialise in technologies or arts, or standard schools that teach the remaining subjects alongside new ones such as politics, sociology, geology etc. Students are expected to pick four subjects including one core to study over a period of two years before taking National Specialised Examinations in those subjects. From there students are then given the option to enter higher education or the job market.

The Manchurian education system has been criticised for the pressure it places on students which have been accused of dehumanising them. It has also been criticised for being highly centralised. As such in recent years the government has passed through several reforms to decentralise decisions to schools and to put less focus of rigorous testing and more on practical application then simply theory, although these reforms have been criticised as being too conservative and simply tinkering around the edges.

Demographics
According to the most recent estimates Manchuria has a total population of 119,042,926 people, making it one of the populated countries in the world behind Mexico but ahead to Lan Na. Since 1945 the population has increased by 385%, with the biggest population growth occurring in the early-1960's to mid 1980's, when the government introduced a two-child policy, modelled off of China's. The policy has been controversial, mandating that parents only have the right to two children and that overstepping this limit will be sterilised and receive fines. Following the fall of communism there has been calls for the policy to be repealed, although as of 2015 such moves have not taken place.

Ethnic groups
A plurality of Manchurians (45%) define themselves as ethnic. The Manchu people were the majority ethnic group in Manchuria until the 1850's when the Qing dynasty allowed Han Chinese people to migrate to Manchuria. However this resulted in a backlash by the Manchu's who forcibly assimilated many Han Chinese into Manchu culture, much to the outrage of the Qing government. During the communist era prior to the many Han Chinese deported from Manchuria to be replaced with Manchu's in  and saw a greater promotion of the Manchu people. Despite this, Han Chinese still make up the largest ethnic group.

The second largest ethnic group in Manchuria is the who officially constitute 42% of the population. Many who identify as Manchu are of mixed Manchu-Han descent. The third largest group is at 6%, followed by  at 2%,  at 1.6% and  at 1%. Other ethnic groups make up 2.4% of the total population. Foreign immigrants to Manchuria traditionally come from, , and. However since the fall of communism many other nationalities have settled in Manchuria, the most prominent being Korean and Japanese people. Koreans especially have seen a huge population spike in Manchuria since the 1990's.

Culture
Manchurian culture is based upon a mix of traditional,  and the legacy of socialist rule in Manchuria. A common question posed by Manchurian scholars is whether Manchuria has retained its pure Manchu traditions or has mixed in too far with Chinese culture to create a hybrid of the two. Recently Manchuria has become more. Traditionally Manchuria has adhered to conservative principles with adherence to hierarchy, authority, and consensus decision making. Manchuria, having been for a long time governed as an isolated socialist dictatorship, retains influence that emphasise, and traditional ethics.

During socialist rule Manchuria developed a unique identity based upon a strong sense of and, , , and  whilst traditional family values being emphasised. Industrialisation, collectivisation and urbanisation saw the end of certain societal structures such as the feudal system and multi-generational families as people moved from small villages into modern sprawling urban centres and collective farms. Sexism towards women was also curbed as women were praised for their role in the family. Further societal change was fuelled by the two-child policy. Controls on cultural expression were imposed by the government, with varying degrees of liberalisation taking place over the years.

Democratisation saw Manchuria enter a period of major cultural change as cultural controls were removed and the new government encouraged freedom of thought and expression. Manchuria also became more westernised as well as take influence from the growing spiritualist movements, most notably the. However cultural norms such as respect for authority, emphasis on family life, societal harmony and consensus and respect for traditional culture remain.

Manchurians are known for being superstitious - unlike the rest of China Manchuria was never as heavily influenced by Confucianism instead retaining shamanistic beliefs. As such many Manchurians aremembers of or  believe in,  and  as well as. Manchurian culture is also informed by Buddhism and Taoism.

Manchuria has recently begun to distinguish themselves with a growing modern film, music and television industries heavily influenced by Japanese and Korean sources as well as mix with traditional Manchu and Chinese theatre, art, literature and opera. Manchuria also is famed for its proud history of sports such as ice skating, wrestling, falconry, archery and riding. The government is active in promoting both archery and riding which is seen as a key part of Manchu identity. Manchuria also has a unique based on millet, soybeans, peas and wild meats with strong flavours. Manchuria also celebrates several traditional holidays and celebrations such as Banjin Inenggi (ᠪᠠᠨᠵᡳᠨ ᡳᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳ) and the as well as newer holidays such as "Revolution Day".