Washirakian language

Noh'kam Language;
	Noh'kam
Spoken in	Washiraki
Region	???
Language family	Language Isolate??? Noh'kam Language; ;
Dialects	Noh'kam Sign Language (deaf)
Writing system	Latin alphabet, Noh'kam Braille
Official status
Regulated by	National Academy of Noh'kam Language
Language codes
ISO 639-3	wa

Noh'kam (Noh'kam: Noh'kam) is the official and most spoken language in Washiraki.

History[]

The language originates by the time when Romans invaded British Isles and mixed with Celtic peoples. Then they migrated to southern Ireland and southwestern Rockallia and northern Extremoterra. Noh’kam is a language spoken by around xxx million people inside the country name and diaspora. The language follows the SOV word order (subject-object-verb), and features a system of particles to convey nuanced meanings. Noh’kam also has different stages of “politeness” that’s used to show different kinds of respect towards people. Noh’kam is an agglutinative language, I can provide you with some characteristics and features commonly associated with these language types:

Alphabet[]

Noh'kam uses Latin script. The Noh’kam writing system is a complex and diverse system. The writing system is a semi-syllabary, combining elements of both syllabic and alphabetic scripts. It's written from left to right with word separation. In this system, each character typically represents a syllable, combining a consonant and a vowel sound. However, Noh'kam script also includes characters for individual consonants and vowels to form more complex syllables. This allows for flexibility in representing the language's phonology while maintaining a relatively straightforward left-to-right reading direction with distinct word boundaries. It’s it or don’t learn either one as this text will have romanization!

Phonology[]

The language is very influenced by Celtic and Germanic languages and French.

Consonant phonemes of Noh'kam
	Labial		Alveolar		Post- alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Pharyngeal
Nasal		m		n				ɲ
Stop	p	b	t	d					k	ɡ
Affricate					t͡ʃ	d͡ʒ			x
Fricative	f	v	s	z	ʃ	ʒ	ç				ħ	h
Trill				r
Flap				ɾ
Approximant	w			l			ʎ	j

a i u e o ɘ~ə ə˞ æ~ɛ y ɔ~ɑ ø~œ ɨ~ɪ ʉ~ʊ̯~ɯ ʌ~ɐ b c cç d dz dʑ~dʒ dɮ f~ɸ g h j k kx kʰ l m n p pʰ q qʰ qχ r s t ts tsʰ tɕ~ tʃ tɕʰ tʰ tɬ v~β w x z ð ħ ŋ ŋmgb ŋm ɖ ɖɭ ɖʐ ɟ ɟʎ ɟʝ ɢ ɢʁ ɣ ɥ ɦ ɬ ɭ ɮ ɰ ɲ ɳ ɹ ɻ ɾ ʀ ~ɰ ʁ ʂ ʃ~ɕ ʄ ʈ ʈʂ ʈʂʰ ʈʰ ʈɭ ʈʂ ʋ ʍ ʎ ʐ ʑ~ʒ ʔ ʔb ʔd ʔg ʕ ʝ θ χ ɥ

Syllabic consonants: [m̩], [n̩], [ŋ̩], [p̩], [t̩], [ɹ̩], and [k̩]

Grammar[]

Features:

1. Morphological Structure: Agglutinative languages use a morphological structure where words are formed by adding affixes to a root or base. These affixes typically convey grammatical information such as tense, aspect, mood, case, number, or possession.

2. Single-Meaning Affixes: Affixes in agglutinative languages tend to have one primary meaning, and they are added to the root in a predictable and consistent manner. This allows for the creation of complex words with clear, distinguishable components.

3. No or Minimal Fusion: Agglutinative languages exhibit little to no fusion between affixes and the root. Each affix retains its own identity and is easily separable from the root or other affixes.

4. Highly Regular Grammar: Agglutinative languages often have highly regular grammar rules, with consistent patterns for affixation and word formation. This regularity makes it relatively straightforward to understand and generate new words.

MORPHOLOGY

Noh’kam follows a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) word order, which means that the subject of a sentence typically comes before the object and the verb. Here is an overview of Noh’kam syntax:

1. Sentence Structure: - Basic Word Order: Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) - Example: I (subject) book (object) read (verb).

2. Noun Phrases: - Nouns: Nouns typically come before adjectives. - Example: House big (meaning "big house").

3. Verb Phrases: - Verbs: Verbs generally appear at the end of the sentence. - Example: She (subject) eats (verb) an apple (object).

4. Adjective Phrases: - Adjectives: Adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify. - Example: Beautiful flower (meaning "beautiful flower").

5. Adverbial Phrases: - Adverbs: Adverbs can appear before or after the verb. - Example: He (subject) runs (verb) quickly (adverb).

6. Questions: - Interrogative Word Order: The interrogative word usually appears at the beginning of the sentence. - Example: Where (question word) is the book (subject)?

7. Negation: - Negation Word Order: The negation word usually precedes the verb. - Example: She (subject) does not (negation) like (verb) coffee.

8. Relative Clauses: - Relative Pronouns: Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns, which come before the verb. - Example: The man (subject) who (relative pronoun) lives (verb) next door (adverbial phrase).

9. Prepositions: - Prepositional Phrases: Prepositions are used to indicate relationships between nouns and other elements in the sentence. - Example: He (subject) went (verb) to the park (prepositional phrase).

10. Coordination: - Coordinating Conjunctions: Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance. - Example: I like apples (clause 1) and oranges (clause 2).

The main grammar point to remember is that when quoting people, you still need to use the Noh’kam SOV word order. Instead of “I do this”, you would write “I this do”.

Phonetics and Orthography

INTRODUCTION TO NOH’KAM SCRIPT

INITIALS, FINALS AND PRONUNCIATION

See Kana document

Syllable structure: (C)(C)V(C)*

Final consonant is always a coda

prolonged sound: ー Glottal stop, no vowel at the end: っ

Syllable Sounds of Ganzi: Each Ganzi has two to eight readings. Types based of origin: Ngi. (Ngixo reading)- from japanese origin Min. (Minan reading)- from hokkien origin Imka- from Imakan origin (rare) Ibxa- from other languages (mostly from Filipino languages, Arabic, Romance languages) (rare) Mix- combination of readings (most likely)

Basic Grammar

GRAMMAR ESSENTIALS

Grammar: There are only a few conjugations in Noh'kam, and they are often dropped especially in casual speech. But here they are! Petitive (wants & needs) - …バキ [...baki] Causative (causing something to happen) - …バ [...ba] Instrumental (using something to do something) - …サ [...sa] Locative (on, at, on something) - …アン [...an] Possessive (ownership) - …ミ [...mi]

But the most important one you WILL need to remember is: Plural - …アリ [...ari]

Pre-reading level test If you already know a bit of Noh'kam, take this test to find out if you can jump ahead a bit! Which words do you know? ク [ku] ニ [ni] マル [maru] バイ [bai] チュ [chu] アイ [ai] カレバ [kareba] バユ [bayu] セマイ [semai] デラク [deraku] カエヌ [kaenu] バラトゥ [baratu] トコ [toko] ワトア [watoa]

Grammar points:

Forming questions is easy, just add a question mark to the end! No need to change the word order or anything else.

アヌ [anu] “what” is a useful word that you can use in questions. It’s placed before マル [maru] “to be”.

Word list:

ニ [ni] - this チュ [chu] - that アヌ [anu] - what ベンベン [benben] - banana トマト [tomato] - tomato トバ [toba] - squirrel

Some verbs カレバ! ニカワヤントゥドール! [Kareba! Ni kawayan tudooru] ニカワヤンナヌ! [Ni kawayan nanu] カニカワヤンネンヌ! [Ka ni kawayan nennu] クボコボコマル! [ku bokoboko maru]

Hey! This bamboo sleeps! This bamboo swims! And this bamboo thinks! I am so proud!

Grammar points:

A good time to remember the SOV word order again! All the verbs are placed at the end of the sentence.

Noun Cases (if applicable) Gender (if applicable) Examples and Exercises

Affixes and Word Formation

Prefixes:

1. ma-: Denotes negation or opposite. Example: magood (mɑʔkɑʔ) - not good, bad.

2. tʰi-: Denotes completion or past tense. Example: tʰidie (tʰɪdiː) - finished eating.

Suffixes:

1. -wa: Denotes negation or opposite. Example: ʒaɪwa (ʒaɪwaɪ) - not big, small.

2. -tɬi: Denotes causative. Example: ʃitɬi (ʃɪtɬɪ) - to make someone scratch.

Infixes:

1. -ʔi-: Denotes intensive or repetitive action. Example: ʃaʔixi (ʃaʔiʃi) - to scratch repeatedly.

2. -ʊ-: Denotes reflexive action. Example: xɪʊxɪ (xɪʔʊxɪ) - to wash oneself.

Morphological derivation is the process of creating new words by adding affixes to base words. Here are some examples of morphological derivations using prefixes and suffixes:

1. Prefix "ma- (negation)": - Base word: tu (to see) Derived word: matu (mætu) - to not see, unseen

- Base word: hɪn (white) Derived word: mahɪn (mahɪn) - not white, non-white

2. Suffix "-tɬi (verb)": - Base word: ʧu (bone) Derived word: ʧutɬi (ʧʊtɬɪ) - to make into a bone, to boneify

- Base word: sɑ (say) Derived word: sɑtɬi (sɑtɬɪ) - to cause someone to say, to make someone say

These are just a few examples of morphological derivations using the provided affixes. By combining prefixes, suffixes, and base words, you can create a variety of derived words with different meanings and nuances.

Here are examples of morphological derivations following the given patterns:

Adjective-to-noun:

1. Adjective: dɛ (black) Derived noun: dɛɑ (dɛɑ) - blackness

2. Adjective: hɪn (white) Derived noun: hɪnɑ (hɪnɑ) - whiteness

Adjective-to-verb:

1. Adjective: kɑ (good) Derived verb: kɑi (kɑi) - to improve, to make better

2. Adjective: lɔ (old) Derived verb: lɔi (lɔi) - to age, to become old

Adjective-to-adjective:

1. Adjective: tʰɪn (thin) Derived adjective: tʰɪnɛi (tʰɪnɛi) - thinner

2. Adjective: xɪn (new) Derived adjective: xɪnai (xɪnai) - newer

Adjective-to-adverb:

1. Adjective: kɔ (cold) Derived adverb: kɔi (kɔi) - coldly

2. Adjective: wuʁ (warm) Derived adverb: wuʁi (wuʁi) - warmly

Noun-to-adjective:

1. Noun: mɛ (breast) Derived adjective: mɛi (mɛi) - related to the breast, mammary

2. Noun: tɔ (flower) Derived adjective: tɔi (tɔi) - floral

Noun-to-verb:

1. Noun: bɑɣ (mountain) Derived verb: bɑɣi (bɑɣi) - to climb a mountain

2. Noun: mɑ (lake) Derived verb: mɑi (mɑi) - to swim in a lake

Verb-to-adjective:

1. Verb: ɾu (live) Derived adjective: ɾuɪ (ɾuɪ) - alive

2. Verb: tɪm (stab) Derived adjective: tɪmai (tɪmai) - stabbed

Verb-to-noun (abstract):

1. Verb: lɔ (lie down) Derived noun: lɔɪ (lɔɪ) - lying, lying down

2. Verb: tʰɪn (think) Derived noun: tʰɪnai (tʰɪnai) - thought

Verb-to-noun (agent):

1. Verb: jæi (laugh) Derived noun: jæinɪ (jæinɪ) - laughter, laugher

2. Verb: qɔu (spit) Derived noun: qɔuɪ (qɔuɪ) - spitter

These examples demonstrate how different word categories can be transformed through morphological derivations using the provided affixes.

VOCABULARY BUILDING

Introducing Yourself

カレバ! クミナヤケノラナマル。 [Kareba! Kumi naya “kenorana” maru] カレバ! クミナヤタナクマル。 [Kareba! Kumi naya “tanaku” maru.] スミナヤバイマル! [Sumi naya bai maru!] スミナヤケヒバイマル! [Sumi naya kehi bai maru!] サデブ! [Sadebu!]

Hello! My name is Kenorana! Hello! My name is Tanaku! Your name is nice! Your name is nice, too! Thank you!

Grammar points:

ク+ミ=クミ [ku + mi = kumi] ス+ミ=スミ [su + mi = sumi] Adding ミ [mi] is the possessive conjugation. That means, ク [ku] “I, me” becomes クミ [kumi] “my” and ス [su] “you” becomes スミ [sumi] “your”.

Also, here you will see how the SOV word order works if you aren’t familiar with it yet. The verb is always at the end of a sentence!

Word list: カレバ [kareba] - Hello ク [ku] - I, me ス [su] - you ナヤ [naya] - name マル [maru] - to be バイ [bai] - good ケヒ [kehi] - also サデブ [sadebu] - thank you

Notable greetings はっふぁ [haffa] - hello (casual) はっふぁあっふぁ [haffa affa] - hello (polite) は昼上 [hahirōjū] - good morning は日上 [hafījū] - good evening は夕上 [haiyujū] - good night やがざー [yagazā] - welcome 初みりって [hassimiritte] - nice to meet you うゆっが？ [uyugga] - how are you? (casual) 君っが？ [kimigga] - how are you? (polite) いいや [iiya] - I’m good いいやな [iiyana] - I’m not so good 我同や [waojiya] - Me too ばい [bai] - Bye よみさみたん [yomisamitan] - Thank you すむたん [sumutan] - I’m sorry

Word list: 나농아ー（なのんあー）[nanong-aa] - HELLO 我 (와 わ) [wa] - I, ME 你 (나 な) [na] - YOU 爲如 (하다 はだ) [hada] - TO DO 나 （な）[na] - (TOPIC MARKER) (Extra notes: I’ll be using hangul as romanization as I said before. If you use Kana, make your notes by changing the content inside the [] brackets into it!) Okay, These are our first words, Let’s learn word order using these!

我나 爲如. [wa na ha da] - I DO (Me-(topic) do) Here is the first sentence! As you can see, verbs go to the end of the sentence! (This means the word order is SOV, subject-object-verb, just like Japanese and Korean!) The topic marker is used to mark the topic of a sentence. In this sentence, it shows that the “doer” is “I, me”. (Compare 은,는 in Korean and は in Japanese)

你나 爲如. [na na ha da] - YOU DO (you-(topic) do) This sentence functions the exact same! “You” is the person “doing” in this sentence as opposed to “I, me” in the sentence before.

나농아ー! [na nong aa] - HELLO! This is a general greeting in Noh'kam. Spot the long vowel at the end (Familiar to Japanese speakers). This word is never written in Chinese characters!

(Practice by writing these sentences down somewhere! Depending on your path, you can add your kana/hangul next to the Chinese and Latin letters. For example, the sentence 你나 爲如 [nana hada] can be written like 나나 하다 ななはだナナハダ Writing things down in Noh'kam will be easier if you know the pronunciation of everything!)

Meeting people Word list: 的 (에 え) [e] - (POSSESSIVE MARKER) 名前 (나진 なじん) [na jin] - NAME 什麼 (심메 しっめ) [shim me] - WHAT 亦 (요 よ) [yo] - (CASUAL MARKER) 如亦 (다요 だよ) [dayo] - (GENERAL SENTENCE ENDING) 吗 (가 が) [ga] - (QUESTION MARKER) 你的名前나什麼吗 [na e na jin na shim me ga] - WHAT’S YOUR NAME? (you-of name-(topic) what-(question)) You can probably spot one familiar word here, “na”! The character after that is 的 [e], which is a possessive marker. That means that it expresses owning. (Think 你的 as meaning “your”). Next comes a new word, 名前 [najin]. This is followed by the topic marker 나 [na]. This means that the topic of this sentence is 名前! Next comes the word for “what”, 什麼 [shimme], which is followed by the question marker 吗 [ga] - This means that the question being asked in the sentence is “what?” 我的名前나OOO如亦. [wa e na jin na OOO da yo] - MY NAME IS OOO. (Me-of name-(topic) OOO to be) (Try inserting your own name in the place of OOO!) The new ending 如亦 [dayo] is a general way of ending a sentence. You’ll get this better when you know a few verbs. For now, in doubt, use [dayo]!

Pointing Word list: 가게 （がげ）[ga ge] - THIS 나게 （なげ）[na ge] - THAT 다 （だ）[da] - IT 也 (이 い) [i] - (PLURAL MARKER) 叨 (도 ど) [do] - AND 伊 (이 い) [i] - HE, SHE

가게나 什麼吗? [ga ge na shim me ga] - WHAT IS THIS? As the word order is SOV, this sentence is literally translated as “this, what?”.

가게也나 什麼吗? [ga ge i na shim me ga] - WHAT ARE THESE? Woah. The plural is easy - just add 也 [i] to the end of a word to make it plural! So 가게 [gage] (this) changes to 가게也 [gagei] (these)! Let’s see if you can spot this in the next two sentences! 나게나 什麼吗? [na ge na shim me ga] - WHAT IS THAT? 나게也나 什麼吗? [na ge i na shim me ga] - WHAT ARE THOSE? Of course, you can spot it. I did highlight it in pink after all. In these sentences, 나게 [nage] (that) changes into 나게也 [nagei] (those)!

가게나 伊如亦 [ga ge na i da yo] - THIS IS HIM/HER. (All third-person pronouns are gender-neutral in Noh'kam!) This is another [dayo]-ending sentence from a few sentences before! So, if 伊 [i] is he/she and 也 [i] is plural, do you know what this means? 伊也 [i i] Right! They! How about this? (Feel free to check the word list!) 伊也叨다 [i i do da] They and it! 叨 [do] is the word for “and”, so use it just like in English!

School story

Word list: 学校 (학교 はっぎょ) [hak gyo] - SCHOOL 書如 (기다 ぎだ) [gi da] - TO WRITE 今日 (가이 がい) [ga i] - TODAY 明日 (멩이 めんい) [meng i] - TOMORROW 読如 (유다 ゆだ) [yu da] - TO READ

今日学校去如亦. [ga i hak gyo gu da yo] - TODAY, I GO TO SCHOOL. Literally “Today school go (casual)”. You can also add the topic marker 나 [na] after 今日 [ga i] to make

今日나学校去如亦. [meng i na hak gyo gu da yo] Now, the topic is “today”. (“As for today, I went to school.”) Lucky for you, Noh'kam has no future marking! You use the same tense as you would use in every sentence we’ve covered so far.

明日나学校去如亦. [meng i na hak gyo gu da yo] - TOMORROW, (I) (WILL) GO TO SCHOOL. Literally “As for tomorrow, school go (casual)”. You only need to specify that the time when the action is happening is in the future by adding a noun such as “tomorrow”. But wait, where is “I, me”? You can drop it if you can figure out who the speaker is talking about. But if you insist on including it, this sentence would be

明日我나学校去如亦. [meng i wa na hak gyo gu da yo] Literally “tomorrow, as for me, school go (polite)”. (In this sentence, the 나 [na] is after 我 [wa]. Why? Well, as you can drop 我 from any sentence if you decide to include it, you might as well make it the topic!) See how the word for “tomorrow” stays at the start of the sentence nonetheless!

書如亦叨読如亦. [gi da yo do yu da yo] - (I) WRITE AND READ. “Write (casual) and read (casual)” And the same with “I, me”: 我나書如亦叨読如亦. [wa na gi da yo do yu da yo] - I WRITE AND READ. “I write (casual) and read (casual)”

Rest of the markers

From, to

Word list: 𪜄 (가 が) [ga] - (SUBJECT MARKER) 遠兒 (올 おㇽ) [ol] - (OBJECT PARTICLE) 於 (오 お) [o] - IN, AT, ON 柄 (가라 から) [ka ra] - FROM 迄 (말레 まっれ) [mal le] - TO 家 (가 が) [ga] - house 天 (덴 でん) [den] - sky

我나 家柄天迄去如亦. [wa na ga ka ra den mal le gu da yo] - I GO FROM THE HOUSE TO THE SKY. (Me-(topic) house-from sky-to went) In English, “from” and “to” go before the word. In Noh'kam, they go after. These two words are also a good example of how Noh'kam Chinese characters can have multi-syllable pronunciations! 我나 家於了如亦. [wa na ga o i da yo] - I AM IN/ON/AT THE HOUSE. (Me-(topic) house-in/on/at am) Same as 柄 and 迄, 於 [o] goes after the word unlike in English. 我나 家也於了如亦. [wa na ga i o i da yo] - I AM IN/ON/AT THE HOUSES. Making “house” plural with 也; the 於 is still at the end of the word. 家遠兒爲如亦 [ga ol ha da yo] - (I) DO THE HOUSE. The object particle 遠兒 [ol] marks the object of the sentence. In this case, the house is the thing that is being “done”. That’s why it gets an object particle. 我𪜄家遠兒爲如亦 [wa ga ga ol ha da yo] - I DO THE HOUSE. In this sentence, “I, me” is the subject. That is why it gets the subject marker 𪜄 [ga]. The house is the object of the verb just as in the last sentence and it gets the object particle.

Test! Write the following sentence down. Try putting the following particles in the right places! 於 [o], 나 [na] 今日_学校_了如亦. [ga i _ hak gyo _ i da yo] “Today, I am at school.” Answers: 今日나学校於了如亦.

Numbers Counting (This time, there are two versions of the text: one with text and one with numbers.) 1) ドーカテ, アヌマル? [doo ka te, anu maru?] ラトマル? [rato maru?] ドーカテ, ラトイニマル! [too ka te rato ini maru!]

2) 2カ3, アヌマル? [doo ka te, anu maru?] 100マル? [rato maru?] 2カ3, 100イニマル! [too ka te rato ini maru!]

Two plus three is what? Is it one hundred? Two plus three is not one hundred!

Grammar points:

Counting in Noh'kam is easy! When adding, use the word “and” カ [ka], and for =, use “to be” マル [maru]! The basic grammar point is {1カ2, 3マル} (1+2=3).

The other point in this text is イニマル [ini maru], “to not be”. (Literally “not be”). You can make any verb negative with イニ [ini]. Treat it like English “not”!

Word list:

1 - e エ 2 - doo ドー 3 - te テ 4 - se セ 5 - re レ 6 - en エン 7 - bi ビ 8 - wa ワ 9 - shi シ 10 - sa サ

イニマル [ini maru] - to not be イニ [ini] - not カ [ka] - and ラト [rato] - one hundred, 100

0 - 零/〇 - れ゙ぬ゙っ leŋ 1 - 一 - いちゃicha 2 - 二 - だぅわ duwa 3 - 三 - さぬっsan 4 - 四 - くわつっkuwats 5 - 五 - り゙ま lima 6 - 六 - り゙ゆうぅっliyuw 7 - 七 - ち chi 8 - 八 - は ha 9 - 九 - たぃさ tisa 10 - 十 - さむっぱ sampa 100 - 百 - やくっyak 1000 - 千 - せり゙ぼselibo 10000 - 万- まma

1 - phù /sˤar/ me ɔu 2 – t͡shaa /wal/ wü teli 3 – dʷapp, /kaʕtra/, tʼʷáû jɛn 4 – r̈a, /saɟl/, chyʼuut͡slh ɹu 5 – ryǔkˤ, /kʷibal/, ẑʷuhkh nɑ 6 – bäi, aaqʰ 7 – thhǔ, /ʒiːtʼ/, d̪ŕâ 8 – llå, /gɪ̃/, wîkʼ 9 - r̈ä, k͡khʼahʷæŕs 10 - phyůnn, tʷʼù 11 - sye̊ 12 - i 13 - ùpʷʼ 14 - ookʷˤo 15 - kˤe̊ṭʰ 16 - dʷa 17 - r̈ipʷʼ 18 - chyʎ̥˔ʰuupp 19 - qqonst̪ʰo̊ 20 - mùw 100 - r̊ee 400 - ẑᵛee 1000 - h̨ä 8000 – lá

Mayan (Yucatec): 6 - ʧak 7 - wuk 8 - wak 9 - bolon 10 - laʔun

Nahuatl: 6 - ʧikuase 7 - ʧikome 8 - ʧikuei 9 - ʧiknahui 10 - maʔtlaʧtli

Quechua: 6 - suqta 7 - qanʧis 8 - pusaq 9 - isqun 10 - ʧunka

Aymara: 6 - phisqa 7 - qanʧis 8 - pusaq 9 - isqun 10 - ʧunka

Word list: 一 (읫 𛀆っ*)[yit] - ONE 二 (니 に) [ni] - TWO 三 (삼 さㇺ) [sam] - THREE 四 (심 しㇺ) [shim] - FOUR 五 (그 ぐぅ) [geu] - FIVE 六 (류 りゅ) [ryu] - SIX 七 (지 じ) [ji] - SEVEN 八 (바 ば) [ba] - EIGHT 九 (구 ぐ) [gu] - NINE 十 (싯 しっ) [shit] - TEN

hiragana yi, only used in Noh'kam

Let’s make larger numbers using these smaller ones!

So, from 11 to 19, the numbers are made by taking 十 [shit] (ten) and adding the amount that the number is over it. For example, 12 would be 十二 [shit ni] and 16 十六 [shit ryu]!

Round tens like 20, 30, 40… are written just like in English. 20 is 二十 [ni shit] and 30 三十 [sam shit]. Saying numbers like 21, 22, 23… is also easy. Just take the number for “twenty” and add the remaining number just like in English. 二十一 [ni shit yit] 二十三 [ni shit sam] 二十四 [ni shit shim]! Can you read what these numbers are? 五十 = 九十九 = 十三 = 八十四=

Colors

Word list: 色 [se] - COLOR 門 [mun] - DOOR 箸 [gai] - CHOPSTICKS Most used color names 赤 [hal] RED

黃 [hong] YELLOW

蒼 [chong] BLUE/GREEN

紅 [hong] WARM RED

橙 [jeng] ORANGE (YELLOWISH)

靑 [baon] BLUE

白 [hak] WHITE

朱黃 [juhong] BRIGHT ORANGE

黒 [om] BLACK

Extra: you need to add the word 色 [se] (color) after the name for the color if you’re speaking about the color of something. So, for example, 黃門 [hongmun] “yellow door” -> 門나黃色如亦 [mun-na hongsedayo] “the door is yellow” 黒家 [omga] “black house” -> 家나黒色如亦 [ga-na omsedayo] “the house is black” 蒼箸 [chonggai] “blue/green chopsticks” -> 箸나蒼色如亦 [gai-na chongsedayo] “the chopsticks are blue/green”

If you cannot remember if you’re supposed to add 色 or not, add it! It’s usually correct!

Days of the week Word list: 月曜日 [yuyooi] - MONDAY 火曜日 [holyooi] - TUESDAY 水曜日 [julyooi] - WEDNESDAY 木曜日 [moyooi] - THURSDAY 金曜日 [geumyooi] - FRIDAY 土曜日 [doyooi] - SATURDAY 日曜日 [iyooi] - SUNDAY

Spot how the days of the week all start with a different syllable but have the same ending. These are the starting syllables:

月 [yu] - moon 火 [hol] - fire 水 [jul] - water 木 [mo] - tree 金 [geum] - gold 土 [do] - ground 日 [i] - sun

And as you can probably remember, the word for in/at/on is 於 [o]. To say “on (insert day)”, you say “X曜日於” (just switch the X to the correct syllable) So “on Monday” would be 月曜日於 [yuyooi-o] (Quite a tongue twister!)

Years and age

Word list: 千 [jin] - thousand 百 [bak] - hundred 歲 [see] - …years old 多少 [sushya] (수샤) - how much, how old 出生爲如 [chusee] - to be born 年 [nen] - year 年歲 [nensee] - age

我나 十八歲如亦. 二千四年於出生爲謖如亦 [Wana shitba-see dayo. Nijinshim-nen-o chuseehatdayo.] I AM 18 YEARS OLD. BORN IN 2004. (me-(topic) 18-age am. 2004-year-in/at/on born-was) You can also use numbers in Noh'kam. This book chooses to teach the Chinese versions first as they are the official system. 我나 18歲如亦. 2004年於出生爲謖如亦 [Wana shitba-see dayo. Nijinshim-nen-o chuseehatdayo.] I AM 18 YEARS OLD. BORN IN 2004. (me-(topic) 18-age am. 2004-year-in/at/on born-was) 你나 多少年歲有如吗? [nana sushya nensee yudaga?] HOW OLD ARE YOU? (you-topic how old age have-(question)) Important: In Noh'kam, one “has” age! (有如 vs. 了如)

TEST TIME! What do these sentences mean? 你나多少年歲有如吗? [na-na sushya nensee yudaga] 我나百歲有如亦. [wana baksee yudayo] 你又百歲有如吗? [na-myu baksee yudaga?]

ANSWERS How old are you? I am 100 years old. Are you 100 years old too?

Family tree Word list: 父母 [bomo] - parents 父 [bo] - dad 母 [mo] - mom 姐 [ja] - sister 兄 [hyo] - brother 兄弟 [hyodii] - sibling 大父母 [dabomo] - grandparents 大父 [dabo] - grandfather 大母 [damo] - grandmother 父姐 [boja] - aunt (dad’s side) 母姐 [moja] - aunt (mom’s side) 父兄 [bohyo] - uncle (dad’s side) 母兄 [mohyo] - uncle (mom’s side)

You can probably see a pattern in the words for family members! You really need to learn a few characters and just stack them up to form new words. For example,

大父父姐兄大母 [dabo boja hyo damo] GRANDFATHER’S PATERNAL AUNT’S BROTHER’S GRANDMA 父母兄大父 [bo mohyo dabo] DAD’S MATERNAL UNCLE’S GRANDFATHER Public transportation Word list: 出租車 [chusuja] - TAXI 巴 [ba] - BUS 電巴 [denba] - TROLLEYBUS 市電 [shiden] - TRAM 列車 [reja] - TRAIN 車 [ja] - CAR 乗如 [gengda] - TO RIDE 和 [wa] - WITH 票 [byo] - TICKET 駅 [yok] -STATION

電巴和家迄乗如謖如. [denba-wa ga-malle gengdatda] 市電和家柄乗如謖如. [shiden-wa ga-kara gengdatda] 巴叨車和不乗如亦. [ba do ja-wa bu-gengdayo] I RODE THE TROLLEYBUS HOME. I RODE THE TRAM FROM HOME. I DO NOT RIDE THE BUS OR CAR.

In Noh'kam, one rides “with” a car. (And with all these other ways of transportation too)

票遠兒買如. [byo-ol sakda] 列車票遠兒買如. [rejabyo-ol sakda] 列車票遠兒買如叨乗如.[rejabyo-ol sakda do gengda] TO BUY A TICKET. TO BUY A TRAIN TICKET. TO BUY A TRAIN TICKET AND RIDE (THE TRAIN)

Adding the mode of transportation, you can specify what the ticket is for. (票 -> 列車票) (ticket -> train ticket). Same with the word for “station”, 駅!

駅 [yok] -> 列車駅 [rejayok] STATION -> TRAIN STATION 駅 [yok] -> 巴駅 [bayok] STATION -> BUS STATION 駅 [yok] -> 電巴駅 [denbayok] STATION -> TROLLEYBUS STATION

(Cultural note! On Waedo, there are taxis, buses, trams, and trains! Only one city has trams, Disong.)

市電駅柄票遠兒買如謖如叨市電遠兒乗如謖如 [shidenyok-kara byo-ol sakdatda do shiden-ol gengdatda] (Tramstation-from ticket-(object) bought and tram-(object) rode) I BOUGHT A TICKET FROM THE TRAM STATION AND RODE THE TRAM. Which one of the sentences below translates to “電巴也나恷如亦”

A Trams are good B Buses are nice C Electric buses are good B Trolleybuses are nice

ANSWER: The correct answer is B.

Food

Allergy and diet オ, カチャンイニマルバヤマル? [o, kachan ini maru baya maru] カチャンイニマルバヤ? カチャンアヌナバル? [kachan ini maru baya? Kachan anuna baru] アレギマル! イニバル! [aregi maru! Ini baru!] リアバヤアリカエヌヒク? [ria baya-ari kaenu hiku?] バワンケヒイニカエヌヒク! [bawan kehi ini kaenu hiku]

Sorry, do you have food that doesn’t have beans? Food that has no beans? Why do you avoid beans? I have an allergy! I’m not avoiding it! Can you eat other foods? I cannot eat onions either.

Grammar points: イニマルバヤ [ini maru baya] “...not be food” is translated to “food with no…”. So if you wanted to say for example “food with no tomato” you would say トマトイニマルバヤ [tomato ini maru baya]. This is also a good time to remember that the word バヤ [baya] itself also means “uncooked rice”, so to say “food without uncooked rice” would be バヤイニマルバヤ [baya ini maru baya] カエヌヒク [kaenu hiku] “eat can” meaning “can eat”. As Noh'kam has SOV word order, these words get flipped. If you said ヒクカエヌ [hiku kaenu] “can eat”, the meaning would mean “to eat ability”. A handy way to remember the word order is to know that every word at the end of the sentence is the main verb of the sentence. カエヌヒク[kaenu hiku] “can eat” -> イニカエヌヒク [ini kaenu hiku] “cannot eat”. Negating a verb cluster; just add an イニ [ini] before all the verbs. Similar clusters: マウ [mau] “to come” -> マウヒク [mau hiku] “can come” -> イニマウヒク [ini mau hiku] “cannot come” トゥドール [tudooru] “to sleep” -> トゥドールヒク [tudooru hiku] “can sleep” -> イニトゥドールヒク [ini tudooru hiku] “cannot sleep”

Word list: カチャン [kachan] - bean バワン [bawan] - onion アレギ [aregi] - “allergy” バル [baru] - to avoid リア [ria] - other ケヒ [kehi] - also

Word list: 食物 [shibu] - FOOD 辣 [ra] - PUNGENT 甘 [jan] - SWEET 酸 [san] - SOUR 塩 (쇼) [shyo] - SALTY 苦 [gu] - BITTER 美吃 (메ㅡꥢㅣ) [meetsi] - SAVORY 麵 [men] - NOODLES 湯 [dang] - SOUP 簡単食物 [ganttanshibu] - FAST FOOD

我나辣食物遠兒好爲亦 [wa-na ra-shibu-ol seu’ahayo] 麵叨簡単食物遠兒好爲亦 [men do ganttanshibu-ol seu’ahayo] 甘湯遠兒不好爲亦 [jan-dang-ol bu-seu’ahayo] 美吃食物叨不好爲亦 [meetsi-shibu do bu-seu’ahayo] (me-(topic) pungent-food-(object) like (casual)) (Noodle and fast food-(object) like (casual)) (sweet-soup-(object) not-like-(casual)) (Savory food also not-like-(casual)) I LIKE PUNGENT FOOD. I LIKE NOODLES AND FAST FOOD. I DON’T LIKE SWEET SOUP. I ALSO DON’T LIKE SAVORY FOOD.

The word 叨 has many uses. When placed correctly, you’ll create meanings like “and” and “also”. 麵叨簡単食物 [men do ganttanshibu] “AND” 美吃食物叨不好爲亦 [meetsi shibu do bu-seu’ahayo] “ALSO”

Recall what you’ve learned about adjectives. You can either put the adjective before the noun like in the text; 甘湯, 辣食物, 美吃食物 [jandang][rashibu][meetsishibu] SWEET SOUP, PUNGENT FOOD, SAVORY FOOD (sweet-soup, pungent-food, savory-food)

Or use the particle -hwek 卉 (read more on page 44) to make; 甘卉湯, 辣卉食物, 美吃卉食物 [jan-hwek dang][ra-hwek shibu][meetsi-hwek shibu] SWEET SOUP, PUNGENT FOOD, SAVORY FOOD (sweet-type soup, pungent-type food, savory-type food)

Fun Fact! 簡単食物 [ganttanshibu] consists of two words; 簡単 (easy, convenient) and 食物 (food). If you want to specify that you’re talking about “easy food” and not “fast food”, it’s best to use the -卉 ending; 簡単卉食物 [ganttan-hwek shibu] (easy-type food/ food that is easy)

Core vocabulary list Common words and phrases Organized by categories (numbers, colors, greetings, etc.) Sentences and Phrases

CONSTRUCTING BASIC SENTENCES

Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) Structure Sentence Examples VERBS

Describes an action, occurrence, or state of being. Example: æi (to eat), tɪ (to see), qɔʃ (to freeze)

Word list: 了如 (이다 いだ) [i da] - TO BE 有如 (유다 ゆだ) [yu da] - TO HAVE, EXIST 去如 (구다 ぐだ) [gu da] - TO GO 來如 (이다 いだ) [i da] - TO COME (spot all the verbs have the same -da ending!) 我나 了如, 我나 有如. [wa na i da, wa na yu da.] - I AM, I HAVE (Me-(topic) to be, me-(topic) to have) Spot the topic marker, making both of these sentences talk about “I, me”. Remember the -dayo ending? Let’s apply it here!

我나 了如亦, 我나 有如亦. [wa na i da yo, wa na yu da yo.] - I AM, I HAVE (Me-(topic) to be-(casual), me-(topic) to have-(casual)) So now these sentences sound casual! Remember how all of the verbs end with -da? Here’s how -dayo was born! Adding -yo to all these -da endings and forming -dayo makes the verb casual speech! Can you guess what the next sentence means?

我也나 去如亦. [wa i na gu da yo] (we-(topic) to go-(casual)) First of all, 我 [wa] (I, me) + 也 [i] (plural) becomes 我也 [wai] (we)! The new verb 去如 [guda] means “to go”, and you probably remember that the -yo ending makes the verb casual. So, this sentence would mean “We go (casual)”.

我也나 來如吗? [wa i na i da ga] (we-(topic) to come-(question)) How about this? This one has the same 我也 [wai] as the other sentence. The verb means “to come”! Do you remember what the ending 吗 [ga] means? Right! A question! So this sentence means “Are we coming?”

VERBAL SYSTEM

Verbal system encompasses tense, mood, and aspect to convey information about the time, attitude, and manner of an action or event. Here are some aspects and tenses that may be present in the verbal system of Noh'kam:

1. Tense: - Past Tense: Used to indicate actions or events that occurred in the past. Suffix: -da Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛida (drank) - Present Tense: Used to indicate actions or events that are happening in the present. Suffix: -ra Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛira (drink) - Future Tense: Used to indicate actions or events that will happen in the future. Suffix: -ma Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛima (will drink)

2. Mood: - Indicative Mood: Used to state facts, make statements, or ask questions about reality. Suffix: -sa Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛisa (drinks) - Subjunctive Mood: Used to express doubts, wishes, possibilities, or hypothetical situations. Suffix: -ka Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛika (may drink) - Imperative Mood: Used to give commands or instructions. Suffix: -ta Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛita (drink!)

3. Aspect: - Perfective Aspect: Indicates that an action or event is viewed as a whole or completed. Perfect Aspect: -na Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛina (has/had drunk) - Imperfective Aspect: Indicates that an action or event is ongoing, continuous, or repetitive. - Progressive Aspect: Indicates that an action or event is in progress or happening at a specific moment. Progressive Aspect: -θa Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛiθa (is/was drinking) - Habitual Aspect: Indicates that an action or event is a habit or regularly occurs. Habitual Aspect: -pa Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛipa (usually/often drinks) - Continuous Aspect: Indicates that an action or event is ongoing and has no specific endpoint.

Past Past tense and verb types Word list: 謖 [t]* - (PAST MARKER) 歩如 (부다 ぶだ) [bu da] - TO WALK 宿題爲如 (숙데하다 すㇰではだ) [suk de ha da] - TO DO HOMEWORK

this word is marked as ㅅ in hangul and っ/ッ in kana!

Okay, so only two new verbs! Easy! Let’s turn them into past tense! 歩如 [bu da] - TO WALK 歩如謖如 [bu dat da] - WALKED 宿題爲如 [suk de ha da] - TO DO HOMEWORK 宿題爲謖如 [suk de hat da] - DID HOMEWORK As for 歩如 [bu da], the -t past marker needs a 如 [da] on both left and right. This is the case with all of the 2-syllable verbs we learned before (了如, 有如, 去如, 來如, 爲如 (can you remember all the readings?)) As for 宿題爲如 [sukdehada], it’s a “hada-type” verb, so the -t ending sticks to 爲 [ha] making 爲謖如 [hatda]! So, without knowing these verbs, can you tell which verbs get 如謖如 and which get 爲謖如?

修理爲如 [su ri ha da] - TO REPAIR 承如 [su da] - TO RECEIVE 錯乱爲如 [sak ran ha da] - TO CONFUSE 允如 [yun da] - TO ALLOW

MORE VERBS Word list: 聽如 [dingda] - to listen 曰如 [iwada] - to say 触如 [chuda] - to touch 愛爲如 [aihada] - to love 作如 [sakda] - to make 디如 [dida] - to become Let’s put all these verbs into different forms!

聽如

曰如

触如

愛爲如

作如

디如

-dayo

聽如亦

dingdayo

曰如亦

iwadayo

触如亦

chudayo

愛爲如亦

aihadayo

作如亦

sakdayo

디如亦

didayo

past

聽如謖如

dingdatda

曰如謖如

iwadatda

触如謖如

chudatda

愛爲謖如

aihatda

作如謖如

sakdatda

디如謖如

didatda

negative

不聽如

bu-dingda

不曰如

bu-iwada

不触如

bu-chuda

不愛爲如

Bu-aiha

da

不作如

bu-sakda

不디如

bu-dida

我나你遠兒愛爲如亦 [wa-na na-ol aihadayo] A very important sentence! You know the meaning if you’ve done your homework!

Tenses and aspects Past, present, and future tenses Verb conjugation Regular and irregular verb conjugations Verb Forms: Attributive, Converb, Finite/Nonfinite, Gerund, Infinitive, Participle, Supine, Transgressive, Verbal Noun

NOUN AND PRONOUN USAGE

Nouns

Represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Example: mæ (forest), hɔ (bird), t͡ɬɔ (fingernail)

Pronouns

Takes the place of a noun, referring to a person or thing. Example: jɔ (you), ʒa (they), nəŋ (we)

In this language, here are the different types of pronouns:

Pronouns: I/me: 私 [わーこ] (waako) (Inclusive) We: 私達ゅ [わーこさぢゅ] (waakosaju) (Exclusive) We: 私達ゃ [わーこさぢゃ] (waakosaja) (Singular) You あぬ゙っ (a ŋ) (Plural) You あぬ゙った (a ŋta) (Singular) They さぃれー (sirē) (Plural) They さぃれ゙ー (silē) It っと(tto)

Pronouns ヤイママル? バユ? [ya ima maru? Bayu?] ヤバユマル。 [ya Bayu maru] カシーダトトマル。 [ka siida toto maru] イダカトトマル。 [ida ka toto maru]

Who is that? Bayu? She is Bayu. And they are friends. We are friends, too.

ガミウトヌ! [gami utonu] イニ, ガミウトヌ! [ini, gami utonu] イニ, ガムベバーイニマル。 [ini, gamu bebaa ini maru]

We will pay! No, we will! No, you guys have no money.

Grammar points: Using カ [ka] in two ways: カシーダ [ka siida] “and they” + イダカ [ida ka] “us too”. The meaning changes to “too/also” when placed after. ガミ [gami] vs. イダ [ida]: Inclusive and exclusive pronouns! イダ [ida] is used when talking to someone and means “we” where the listener is included. ガミ [gami] is used when the listener is not included in “we”.

Word list: ヤ [ya] - he/she イマ [ima] - who シーダ [siida] - they (plural) イダ [ida] - we (inclusive) ガミ [gami] - we (exclusive) ガム [gamu] - you (plural), y’all トト [toto] - friend ベバー [bebaa] - “paper” paper/money ウトヌ [utonu] - to pay

Types

1. Personal Pronouns: - I - i /him/ /ni/ 我 [wa] - You (casual) - jɔ /kˤu/ うゆ [uyu] - You (polite) - jɔ /kˤu/ 君 [kimi] - He/She/It - あ [a] - We (inclusive) - nəŋ /fˤəl/ 我達 [wa’ncha] - We (exclusive) - 我た [wata] - You (plural, casual) - /kʷal/ /qɛ/ ゆた [yuta] - You (plural, polite) - 君達 [kimincha] - They - ʒa /ɟal/ あた [ata]

There are a few things to point out about the pronouns:

   1. 	
		
[uyu] 	and [yuta] can 	only be used in combination with verbs set in the 	casual 		mood.
   2.

[kimi] 		and [kimincha] can only be used in combination with verbs set in 	the 	polite 		mood.
   3.

[wa’ncha] 		is inclusive, 		meaning that when it’s mentioned the pronoun mentions the 		speaker(s) as well as the listener(s).
   4.

[wata] 		is exclusive, 		meaning that when it’s mentioned the pronoun only mentions the 		speaker(s) and NOT the listener(s).

2. Possessive Pronouns: - My/Mine - Not specified in the provided vocabulary - Your/Yours - Not specified in the provided vocabulary - Their/Theirs - Not specified in the provided vocabulary - Our/Ours - Not specified in the provided vocabulary - His/Her/Hers/Its - Not specified in the provided vocabulary 3. Reflexive Pronouns: - Not specified in the provided vocabulary

4. Demonstrative Pronouns: - This - dæ /kˤad/ - That - xɔ /sˤa/

5. Interrogative Pronouns: - Who - ɾu - What - ʦi - Where - kɛ - When - ɬa - How - ɣu

6. Relative Pronouns: - Not specified in the provided vocabulary

7. Indefinite Pronouns: - Some - fu - Other - tɑ - One - ɔu - Many - xɛi - Few - sɪ

Pronoun usage and declension Questions and interrogatives

NEGATION Word list: 冇 (모 も) [mo] - NONE 勿 (무 む) [mu] - DO NOT 不 (부 ぶ) [bu] - NOT, NON- 쟈네ㅡ요 （じゃねーよ）[jya nee yo] - NOT

You can see how there is no one specific word for “no” in Noh'kam. Let’s see how to work around this. 不 [bu] is the most used one out of these all. It is used in many compounds like 不適切 [bu ki jo] (unsuitable), 不幸 [bu shi] (unfortunately), and 不便安 [bu bin an] (uncomfortable) This is also used in “does not…” 不爲如 [bu ha da], which is a common way to answer to yes/no questions! An example: 你나 爲如吗 [na na ha da ga] - DO YOU DO? (you-(topic) do-(question)) 我나 爲亦 [wa na ha yo] - I DO (CASUAL). (me-(topic) do) 我나 不爲亦 [wa na bu ha yo] - I DO NOT (CASUAL). (me-(topic) not-do) and 你나 宿題爲如吗 [na na suk de ha da ga] - DO YOU DO HOMEWORK? (you-(topic) homework-do-(question)) 我나 爲亦 [wa na ha yo] - I DO (CASUAL). (me-(topic) do) 我나 不爲亦 [wa na bu ha yo] - I DO NOT (CASUAL). (me-(topic) not-do)

쟈네ㅡ요 is like an alternative to 不 [bu]. It just goes after the word, not before. That is why it’s pretty easy to use compared to 不 [bu]. 我나 爲如 [wa na ha da] - I DO. (me-(topic) do) 我나 爲如쟈네ㅡ요 [wa na ha da jya nee yo] - I DO NOT. (me-(topic) do-not) 我나 宿題爲如 [wa na suk de ha da] - I DO HOMEWORK. (me-(topic) homework-do) 我나 宿題爲如쟈네ㅡ요 [wa na suk de ha da jya nee yo] - I DO NOT DO HOMEWORK. (me-(topic) homework-do-not)

Then comes 冇 [mo] (none). You can use this in sentences relating to amounts! So if someone asks you: “How many friends do you have?” you can answer with “冇”!

勿 [mu] is used when saying “Do not!” 你나 勿宿題爲如 [na na mu suk de ha da] - YOU DO NOT DO HOMEWORK! (you-(topic) don’t homework-do)

Let’s use both 不 [bu] and 쟈네ㅡ요 [jya nee yo] to make these verbs negative! 了如 [i da]- 不了如 [bu i da]- 了如쟈네ㅡ요 [i da jya nee yo] 有如 [yu da]- 不有如 [bu yu da]- 有如쟈네ㅡ요 [yu da jya nee yo] 去如 [gu da]- 不去如 [bu gu da]- 去如쟈네ㅡ요 [gu da jya nee yo] 來如 [i da]- 不來如 [bu i da]- 來如쟈네ㅡ요 [i da jya nee yo]

NOUN DECLENSION

Explanation of noun cases (if applicable) How noun cases work and examples

QUESTIONS AND INTERROGATIVES

Section 3.3: Questions and Interrogatives

In Noh'kam, questions and interrogatives are an essential part of effective communication. Understanding how to form and use questions is crucial for engaging in meaningful conversations. This section will provide a comprehensive explanation of questions and interrogatives in the Noh'kam language, along with numerous examples to help you grasp this concept fully.

Types of Questions:

Noh'kam distinguishes between several types of questions, including yes-no questions and wh-questions. Each type serves a specific purpose and requires different question word order and intonation.

1. Yes-No Questions:

In Noh'kam, yes-no questions are used to seek a simple "yes" or "no" answer. These questions typically start with a verb, and the word order is often changed to indicate that it's a question. To form a yes-no question, the subject and verb are reversed, and a question particle is added at the end.

Example:

Statement: The cat is sleeping. (Noh'kam: Kax okatana alata.) Yes-No Question: Is the cat sleeping? (Noh'kam: Alata okatana?)

Yes-no questions are used to elicit simple affirmative or negative responses. They typically start with a question word or particle at the beginning of the sentence. The verb order remains the same as in declarative sentences. Here's an example:

Noh'kam: Kam sokai ne? (Did you eat?) Kam is the question word here, indicating a yes-no question. The verb sokai (eat) remains unchanged.

2. Wh-Questions:

Wh-questions are used to inquire about specific information, such as who, what, when, where, why, and how. In Noh'kam, the word order for wh-questions typically follows the same pattern as in declarative sentences, with the question word (e.g., who, what, where) placed at the beginning of the sentence.

Example:

Statement: She went to the store. (Noh'kam: Yiex tonetar lein.) Wh-Question: Where did she go? (Noh'kam: Lei yiox tonetar?) Interrogative Particles:

Noh'kam uses specific particles to indicate that a question is being asked. The choice of particle depends on the type of question being formed:

-na: This particle is used to form yes-no questions.

Example:

Did you eat? (Noh'kam: Tayu haina?) -ka: This particle is used for wh-questions.

Example:

Where are you going? (Noh'kam: Kayu toreti?)

Wh-questions seek detailed information and often begin with question words such as who, what, when, where, why, and how. These question words serve as the focus of the question. The word order in Noh'kam for wh-questions is flexible, but typically, the question word appears at the beginning. Here's an example:

Noh'kam: Kam naram pona? (What did you buy?) Naram is the question word, and the word order is flexible, but the question word usually comes at the start.

Word list: 오레 （おれ）[ore] - who 오쩨 （おちぇ）[oche] - when 오고 （おご）[ogo] - where 乜人 (몌진 みぇじん) [myejin] - who 乜時 (몌시 みぇし) [myeshi] - when 乜所 (몌소 みぇそ) [myeso] - where You might be asking, why are there two of each? It’s because the three first ones are native Noh'kam and the three after that are Sinitic. Learn either set! The Sinitic version is a bit easier for beginners! They all have the word 乜 [mye] (what) and just add 人 [jin] (person), 時 [shi] (time), and 所 [so] (place) after it! 乜人來如吗? [myejin idaga] - WHO COMES? 乜時來如吗? [myeshi idaga] - WHAT TIME DOES (INSERT PRONOUN) COME? 乜所來如吗? [myeso idaga] - WHERE DOES (INSERT PRONOUN) COME?

VS. the native Noh'kam counterparts

오레 來如吗? [ore idaga] - WHO COMES? 오쩨 來如吗? [oche idaga] - WHAT TIME DOES (INSERT PRONOUN) COME? 오고 來如吗? [ogo idaga] - WHERE DOES (INSERT PRONOUN) COME?

Tag Questions

Tag questions are used to seek confirmation or agreement from the listener. They often involve attaching a short phrase at the end of a declarative statement. Here's an example:

Noh'kam: Nahau lam ne, haina? (You like this, right?) The tag question, haina, is used to confirm the statement.

Negative Questions

Negative questions are formed by adding a negative marker, such as ne, to a declarative statement. This type of question seeks to confirm a negative response. Example:

Noh'kam: Kam tona ne? (Aren't you coming?) The addition of ne transforms the statement into a negative question.

3.3.2 Practice Exercises

To become proficient in forming questions in Noh'kam, practice is key. Try these exercises to reinforce your understanding:

Exercise 1: Translate the following sentences into Noh'kam, making them either yes-no questions or wh-questions.

What time is it? Are you coming to the party? Did she read the book? Where is your house? Do you like chocolate? Exercise 2: Create tag questions for the following statements in Noh'kam.

You enjoyed the movie. She is a doctor. It's a beautiful day. We can go together. He knows the answer. By mastering the art of forming questions and interrogatives in Noh'kam, you'll enhance your ability to engage in conversations and gather information effectively. Practice and observation are essential in developing your proficiency in this aspect of the language.

Intonation:

In spoken Noh'kam, the intonation of a question is important for conveying the speaker's intent. Rising intonation at the end of a sentence typically signals a question. Make sure to adjust your pitch accordingly when asking questions.

Practice Exercises:

Form yes-no questions using the following statements:

He is reading a book. She will arrive tomorrow. Create wh-questions based on the given information:

Statement: They met at the park. Statement: The party is at her house. Use the appropriate interrogative particle (-na or -ka) to form questions:

___ will you come to the event? ___ is your favorite color? Practice intonation by asking questions aloud and recording yourself to check your pitch.

Mastery of questions and interrogatives in Noh'kam is a key milestone in your language learning journey. These structures will enable you to engage in more interactive and meaningful conversations with native speakers.

In the Noh'kam language, the ability to form questions is essential for effective communication. Questions, also known as interrogatives, allow you to seek information, confirm details, and engage in meaningful conversations. This section will provide you with a comprehensive understanding of how to form different types of questions in Noh'kam.

Section 3.4: Expressing "I Speak..." and Language Proficiency

In the journey of learning Noh'kam, it's essential to be able to express your language skills and communicate effectively. This section will guide you on how to say, "I speak Noh'kam," and express your language proficiency in conversations.

3.4.1 Expressing "I Speak..." in Noh'kam

In Noh'kam, the phrase "I speak [language]" can be constructed simply by using the verb "talk" and the name of the language, as follows:

Word list: 我的島語 [waedogo] - Noh'kam 言如 [onda] - TO SPEAK 日本語 [ibongo] - JAPANESE 語 [go] - LANGUAGE

我나我的島語遠兒言如. [wa-na waedogo-ol onda] I SPEAK Noh'kam. (me-(topic) Noh'kam-(object) speak) 你又我的島語遠兒言如. [na-myu waedogo-ol onda] YOU, ALSO, SPEAK Noh'kam (you-also Noh'kam-(object) speak) 我나日本語又言如. [wa-na ibongo-myu onda] I ALSO SPEAK JAPANESE. (me-(topic) Japanese-also speak) 你又日本語遠兒言如吗. [na-myu ibongo-ol onda-ga] DO YOU, TOO, SPEAK JAPANESE? (you-also Japanese-(object) speak-(question))

言如 [onda] means “to speak”. Want to say “I speak (insert language)”? Here’s how to do it!

我나OOO語遠兒言如. [wana OOO-go ol onda]. The language names in Noh'kam are often translated from the Chinese language counterpart. So every language has a set of Chinese characters applied to them. (Feel free to ask what a specific language would be in Noh'kam!)

Noh'kam: Kam yaska Noh'kam. Kam - "I" yaska - "speak" or "talk" Noh'kam - The name of the language You can replace "Noh'kam" with any other language you wish to say you can speak. For example:

Noh'kam: Kam yaska English. "I speak English." 3.4.2 Expressing Language Proficiency

In Noh'kam, you can also express your proficiency in a language. Whether you are a beginner, intermediate, or advanced speaker, you can convey your level of competence using the following phrases:

Beginner: saike ne kam (I am a beginner) Intermediate: tamara ne kam (I am intermediate) Advanced: hona ne kam (I am advanced) You can insert these phrases into sentences, e.g., "I am an intermediate Noh'kam speaker."

3.4.3 Examples

Let's look at some examples of how to express your language skills and proficiency:

Noh'kam: Kam yaska Korean, tamara ne kam.

"I speak Korean, I am intermediate." Noh'kam: Kam yaska French, hona ne kam.

"I speak French, I am advanced." 3.4.4 Practice Exercises

Exercise your newfound language proficiency expression with these exercises:

Exercise 1: Construct sentences that express your ability to speak various languages using the "I speak..." construction. Example: "I speak Spanish."

Exercise 2: Practice expressing your language proficiency. Create sentences that state your level of proficiency in different languages. Example: "I am a beginner in Japanese."

By mastering these expressions, you'll be able to convey your language skills and proficiency confidently when engaging with others in Noh'kam and other languages you may be learning.

What do these sentences mean? 你나什麼語遠兒言如吗? [na-na shimme go-ol ondaga] 我나伊的名前遠兒不知如 [wa-na i-e najin-ol bushida] 家나古如亦. [ga-na go dayo]

ANSWERS What language do you speak? I do not know his/her name. The house is old.

Section 3.5: Describing "I Am" and "You Are"

In this section, you will learn how to describe yourself and others using "I am" and "You are" sentences in Noh'kam. These simple yet fundamental sentence structures are essential for introducing yourself and having basic conversations.

3.5.1 Describing "I Am" in Noh'kam

In Noh'kam, expressing "I am" is straightforward and relies on a basic sentence structure. To say "I am" followed by an adjective, use the following pattern:

Noh'kam uses two different words for the verb “to be”: や [ya], and やんべる [yan(g)beru], [ya] Is used for casual forms of speech, mostly with people that you know personally, and [yan(g)beru] is used for polite and respectful speech, mostly used when talking to people you don’t know, people of higher class or elderly people. Examples:

我や。[wa ya] I am. (casual)

うゆや。[uyu ya] You are. (casual)

あやんべる。[a yan(g)beru] He/She/It is. (polite) Note that Noh'kam does not have a distinct pronoun for differentiating between genders!

Noh'kam also uses particles to make the sentence more clear, most common ones are う [u] and げ [ge], both are topic markers, but they are used differently. [u] is used when the object is indefinite, and [ge] is used when the object is definite. Compare that to the indefinite and definite articles of “a” and “the” in English. Examples:

あう学生や。 [a u gōshei ya] He is a student. (casual) Also note that Noh'kam is an SOV language, meaning that verbs go to the end of a sentence!

我たげ学生やんべる。[wanta ge gōshei yan(g)beru] We are the students. (polite) Noh'kam does not differentiate between singular and plural when it’s obvious from the context!

Basic vocabulary (Lesson 1) う [u] - indefinite topic marker げ [ge] - definite topic marker ぬ [nu] - possessive marker い [i] - content question marker っが [gga] - polar question marker 学生 [gōshei] - student 名前 [namā] - name 犬 [yannu] - dog 猫 [maya] - cat, pussy (I had to I’m sorry) 何 [nan] - what

Noh'kam: [Pronoun] [Verb] [Adjective]. Pronoun - Referring to the subject (I, you, he, she, etc.) Verb - Usually the verb "am" in the respective form (kam for "I am," ha for "you are," etc.) Adjective - The quality or characteristic you want to describe. Examples:

Noh'kam: Kam neki. (I am happy.) Noh'kam: Ha sana. (You are kind.) 3.5.2 Describing "You Are" in Noh'kam

To describe "you are" someone or something, you can use a similar sentence structure. The difference lies in the choice of pronoun:

Noh'kam: [Pronoun] [Verb] [Adjective]. Pronoun - Referring to the subject (I, you, he, she, etc.) Verb - Use the appropriate form, such as "kam" for "I am," "ha" for "you are." Adjective - The quality or characteristic you wish to describe. Examples:

Noh'kam: Kam neki. (I am happy.) Noh'kam: Ha sana. (You are kind.) 3.5.3 Practice Exercises

To become proficient in describing yourself and others, practice constructing sentences using these patterns:

Exercise 1: Form sentences that describe yourself using "I am" sentences in Noh'kam. Example: "I am friendly."

Exercise 2: Create sentences to describe others using "You are" sentences in Noh'kam. Example: "You are intelligent."

Exercise 3: Develop sentences that describe people you know using both "I am" and "You are" constructions. Example: "He is patient."

Through practice and creativity, you'll become adept at describing yourself and others in Noh'kam, allowing you to engage in more meaningful conversations and establish connections with speakers of the language.

Lesson 2 - What’s your name?

Section 3.6: Introducing "What's Your Name?"

In this section, you'll learn how to ask someone for their name and respond when someone asks for yours. "What's your name?" is one of the most basic and essential conversational phrases you'll need in Noh'kam.

Introducing your name to someone is regularly easy in Noh'kam, you don’t need a lot of knowledge to introduce yourself! Example:

我ぬ名前げなたりーやんべる！ [wa-nu namā ge natarī yan(g)beru] My name is Nateilie! (polite)

By putting the particle [nu] before any pronoun or subject, then that pronoun/subject becomes a possessor of the noun after the particle [nu]! So for example 「我ぬ」 means “my”,　「うゆぬ」means “your” ect. If you’re confused which topic marker to use when introducing yourself, [ge] is the topic marker to use for introducing yourself and others. Now, try introducing yourself in Noh'kam!

君ぬ名前げ何やんべるい。[kimi-nu namā ge nan yan(g)beru i] What’s your name? (polite)

我ぬ名前げーーーやんべる。 [wa-nu namā ge - - - yan(g)beru] My name is - - -. (polite)

To make a question, you either put い [i] or っが [gga] at the end of a sentence, but they are used differently. い [i] Is a content question marker, meaning that it’s an open question (wh- question), and っが [gga] is a polar question marker, used for yes/no questions! Examples:

うゆぬ犬やっが。 [uyu-nu yannu yagga] Is it your dog? (casual)

うゆぬ猫ぬ名前げ何やい。[uyu-nu maya-nu namā ge nan yai] What’s your cat’s name? (casual) Basic vocabulary (Lesson 2) けろ [kero] - this (closer to speaker) おろ [oro] - that (closer to listener) あろ [aro] - that (far away from both speaker and listener) だろ [daro] - which けった [ketta] - these (closer to speaker) おった [otta] - those (closer to listener) あった [atta] - those (far away from both speaker and listener) けご [kego] - here おご [ogo] - there あご [ago] - over there だご [dago] - where 家 [iya] - house, home 学家 [gōiya] - school 書物 [simuji] - book 市 [yishi] - city に [ni] - at/in/on み [mi] - also, too いやー [iyā] - yes, yuh, yeah, right うぅー [wū] - no

Noh'kam cities 宮東 [miyatō] - Miyatō やお [yao] - Yao なざ [naza] - Naza 山川 [yamagawan] - Yamagawan

3.6.1 Asking "What's Your Name?"

To ask someone for their name in Noh'kam, you can use the following phrase:

Noh'kam: Natake lam kamam? Natake - What lam - Your kamam - Name 3.6.2 Responding with Your Name

When someone asks for your name, you can respond with:

Noh'kam: Kamam [Your Name]. Kamam - My name [Your Name] - Insert your name in place of the brackets. 3.6.3 Practice Dialogues

To familiarize yourself with this common interaction, let's look at some practice dialogues:

Dialogue 1:

Person A: Natake lam kamam? (What's your name?) Person B: Kamam Aria. (My name is Aria.) Dialogue 2:

Person A: Natake lam kamam? (What's your name?) Person B: Kamam Ravi. (My name is Ravi.) 3.6.4 Practice Exercises

Practice asking for and providing names in Noh'kam with the following exercises:

Exercise 1: Write your own dialogue where you introduce yourself and ask someone for their name.

Exercise 2: Role-play with a partner or practice with a language exchange buddy, taking turns asking and answering "What's your name?" in Noh'kam.

By mastering this basic conversation starter, you'll be well-equipped to make new acquaintances and engage in conversations in Noh'kam. Remember to practice regularly to become more confident in using this fundamental expression.

DEMONSTRATIVES

In this section, you will learn how to indicate proximity and identify objects or locations using demonstratives in Noh'kam. Demonstratives are vital for effective communication, helping you specify whether something is "this," "that," or "there."

3.7.1 Demonstratives - "This" and "That"

In Noh'kam, there are two basic demonstratives: this and that.

Noh'kam: sama (this) Noh'kam: tama (that) These demonstratives help you point out or describe objects in terms of their proximity to you. For example:

Noh'kam: Sama kamakai. (This book.) Noh'kam: Tama komaki. (That pen.) 3.7.2 Demonstrative - "There"

To indicate that something is located farther away, you can use the demonstrative there in Noh'kam.

Noh'kam: hama (there) This helps you specify a location or object at a distance. For example:

Noh'kam: Hama kamane. (There is the car.)

Noh'kam uses a handful of words for pointing out directions, places, and objects, ranging from three main distances; proximal (closest to speaker), medial (closest to listener), and distal (away from both speaker and listener). Examples:

あろげうゆぬ家やっが。[aro ge uyu-nu iya yagga] Is that your house?

うゆぬ学家げだごやい。[uyu-nu gōiya ge dago yai] Where is your school? Keep the difference between [gga] and [i] in mind!

我ぬ家げ宮東にや。[wa-nu iya ge miyatō-ni ya] My house is in Miyatō.

Noh'kam doesn’t really have a word for “mine”, instead it’s used like the normal possessive in Noh'kam, except it’s used with [kero], [oro], [aro], [ketta], [otta], or [atta] at the end. Example:

けったげ我ぬ書物や、我ぬけったや。 [ketta ge wa-nu simuji ya, wa-nu ketta ya] These are my books, these are mine. Spelt lit. as: “These my books are, my these are.”

おったげ君ぬ書物やんべるっが。[otta ge kimi-nu simuji yan(g)berugga] Are those your books?

いやー、我ぬけったやんべる。[iyā, wa-nu ketta yanberu] Yes, these are mine. Spelt literally as: “Yes, My these is”.

Basic vocabulary (Lesson 3) 行ちゅん [ichun] - to go やべ [yabo] - to do や [ya] - to be なおん [naon] - to become 持づぉん [modzon] - to have, to possess 書ちゅん [sichun] - to write 読むん [yomun] - to read 咬むん [kamun] - to eat 体病 [tabbyo] - sick (physically)

3.7.3 Practice Exercises

To become proficient in using demonstratives, practice identifying and referring to objects or locations with the following exercises:

Exercise 1: Describe objects or people around you using "this" and "that." Example: "This is my bag."

Exercise 2: Create sentences indicating objects or locations at a distance using "there." Example: "There is a park."

Exercise 3: Engage in a practical exercise where you point to objects or locations and use the correct demonstratives to describe them in Noh'kam. This can be done alone or with a partner.

Exercise 4: Combine demonstratives with "What's your name?" or other phrases you've learned to create longer sentences. Example: "This is my friend. What's your name?"

By mastering demonstratives, you'll be able to effectively communicate the location or identity of objects, people, or places in Noh'kam, enhancing your ability to engage in conversations and provide clear descriptions. Practice is key to becoming proficient in using these important words.

ニアヌマル? [ni anu maru] チュベンベンマル。 [Chu benben maru] チュアヌマル? [chu anu maru] ニトマトマル。 [ni tomato maru] ニベンベンマル? [ni benben maru] イニ, チュトバマル。 [ini, chu toba maru]

What is this? That is a banana. What is that? This is a tomato. Is this a banana? No, that is a squirrel. Word list:

ニ [ni] - this チュ [chu] - that アヌ [anu] - what ベンベン [benben] - banana トマト [tomato] - tomato トバ [toba] - squirrel

Lesson 4 - I do, I did, I will do

In this section, you'll learn how to express actions in the present, past, and future tenses in Noh'kam. Mastering the ability to communicate when you do something is fundamental to having fluent conversations.

3.8.1 Present Tense - "I Do"

To express actions you are currently doing in Noh'kam, use the following structure:

Noh'kam: [Pronoun] [Present Tense Verb]. Pronoun - Referring to the subject (I, you, he, she, etc.) Present Tense Verb - The action verb in the present tense form. Examples:

Noh'kam: Kamakai kam. (I read.) Noh'kam: Natakai kam. (You write.) 3.8.2 Past Tense - "I Did"

When talking about actions you did in the past in Noh'kam, use the following structure:

Noh'kam: [Pronoun] [Past Tense Verb]. Pronoun - Referring to the subject (I, you, he, she, etc.) Past Tense Verb - The action verb in the past tense form. Examples:

Noh'kam: Kamakai han. (I read.) Noh'kam: Natakai han. (You wrote.) 3.8.3 Future Tense - "I'll Do"

To express actions you will do in the future in Noh'kam, use the following structure:

Noh'kam: [Pronoun] [Future Tense Verb]. Pronoun - Referring to the subject (I, you, he, she, etc.) Future Tense Verb - The action verb in the future tense form. Examples:

Noh'kam: Kamakai tom. (I will read.) Noh'kam: Natakai tom. (You will write.) 3.8.4 Practice Exercises

To become proficient in expressing actions in different tenses in Noh'kam, practice with the following exercises:

Exercise 1: Create sentences about what you are currently doing using the present tense. Example: "I am eating."

Exercise 2: Form sentences describing what you did in the past using the past tense. Example: "I watched a movie."

Exercise 3: Write sentences about what you will do in the future using the future tense. Example: "I will travel to the beach."

Exercise 4: Combine present, past, and future tense sentences to narrate a short story or describe a day in your life.

By mastering the ability to express actions in different tenses, you'll be well-equipped to engage in conversations about various activities and events in Noh'kam. Practice and creativity are essential for honing this skill. This lesson will be about conjugating verbs into the four Noh'kam tenses; past, present, near future, and future, as well as conjugating verbs into negative forms. To start, Noh'kam has three types of verbs; on-verbs, un-verbs, and irregular verbs. The on-verbs are verbs that end in the “on” sound, same with the un-verbs, but instead they end with an “un” sound.

Examples:

持づぉん　[modzon] To have

読むん　[yomun] To read

Noh'kam also has two irregular verbs, them being “to be” (や) and “to do” (やぼ). Both of these verbs conjugate differently than the rest.

Noh'kam “to be” & “to do” chart

Past

Present

Near future

Future

To be (casual)

やった

や

やうん

やじょ

To do (casual)

やべった

やべ

やべゆん

やべじょ

To be (polite)

やんったる

やんべる

やぬる

やんじょる

To do (polite)

やべったる

やべる

やべゆる

やべじょる

Examples:

我達げけったやべゆんっが。 [wa’ncha ge ketta yabeyun(g)gga] Will we do these soon?

あげ体病やった。[a ge tabbyo yatta] She was sick. To set any on- and un-verb into any tense, you first need to find the verb stem. To find the verb stem of any Noh'kam verb (except the irregular verbs), you simply remove the ん [n] from it at the end! So for example, the verb stem (vs) of 持づぉん [modzon] (to have) is 持づぉ [modzo], and 読むん [yomun] (to read) would be 読む [yomu]! Tip: the vs standing alone already means “present tense (casual)”!

And now to set any verb into any tense in the casual and polite mood, you need to know the 6 endings, which are:

Past tense - っとぅ [ttu] & っと [tto] Near future tense - ゆん [yun(g)] & よん [yon(g)] Future tense - まず [mazu] & まぞ [mazo]

These are endings for the casual mood, to make them polite, you simply add る at the end of every ending! You might be asking yourself; why are there two endings for each tense? That’s because on- and un-verbs require different endings, the first column is for the un-verbs, and the second one is for the on-verbs. By connecting the vs to the assigned ending you can successfully conjugate basic verbs in Noh'kam. Examples:

我咬む　＋　っとぅ　我咬むっとぅ。[wa kamuttu] I ate.

うゆ行ちゅ　＋　ゆんっがうゆ行ちゅゆんっが。[uyu ichuyun(g)gga] Will you go soon?

あげあろ書物持づぉ　＋　っとるあげあろ書物持づぉっとる。[a ge aro simuji modzottoru] He had that book.

Basic vocabulary (Lesson 4) 飲むん [nomun] - to drink 見おん [n’mīon] - to see 笑うん [haraun] - to laugh 寝おん [neon] - to sleep 歩ちゅん [anchun] - to walk 言うん [yiun] - to say, to speak 知おん [shion] - to know 今日 [kyofī] - today 来日 [kufī] - tomorrow 前日 [māfī] - yesterday

Lesson 5 - I didn’t know that!

This is a follow up to lesson 4 about more information for conjugating verbs, this time conjugating them into the negative and some other grammatical info. To make a verb be a negative in Noh'kam, you simply add な [na] (casual) or のる [noru] (polite) at the end of the verb. Examples:

今日、我げ寝お　　＋　のる今日、我げ寝おのる。[kyofī, wa ge neo noru] I didn’t sleep today.

我げおろ書物読むまず　＋　　な我げおろ書物読むまずな。[wa ge oro simuji uomumazu na] I will not read that book.

君げあろ知おっと＋のるっが君げあろ知おっとのるっが。[kimi ge aro shiotto norugga] Didn’t you know that?

It’s important to note that in Noh'kam, you can drop the subject depending on the context, meaning that you don’t have to for example mention 我 every time something is about you! Example:

君げあろ知おっとのるっが。[kimi ge aro shiotto norugga] Didn’t you know that?

知おっとのる！ [shiottonoru] (I) didn’t know!

THINGS ON MY TABLE

Describing "Things on My Table"

In this section, you will learn how to describe and talk about the objects and items on your table in Noh'kam. Being able to discuss everyday items is important for casual conversations and for describing your surroundings.

我的桌於計算機가有如. [wa-e gak-o geesagi-ga yuda] 筆記本叨筆又有如. [bigibon to bi-myu yuda] 灯又有如, 灯가閂如叨開如 [dang-myu yuda, dang-ga sanda do gyada] There us a computer on my table. There is also a notebook and a pen. There is also a lamp. The lamp turns off and on.

(Info: the character 叨 changes pronunciation depending on the word before it: if it ends in a consonant, it is [to]. Otherwise, it’s [do]) This is the first chapter with writing that has no spaces! Can you read it still? Let’s read more about this desk!

我的桌於儒電話叨橡皮가不有如. [wa-e gak-o rudenhwa do sangbi-ga buyuda] 儒電話也遠兒愛爲如亦. [rudenhwai-ol aihadayo] On my table, there is no eraser or mobile phone. I love mobile phones.

You can use 叨 to make lists pretty much infinitely! (A叨B叨C叨E叨...) Also, spot the 也 after 儒電話 in the last sentence! It makes the sentence feel more like “generally, I like all kinds of mobile phones” instead of “I like a certain mobile phone”.

By the way, you can also use 閂如 and 開如 to mean other forms of “turning off/on”! As long as the device you’re referring to is electric!

計算機遠兒閂如 [geesagi-ol sanda] TO TURN COMPUTER OFF 儒電話遠兒開如 [rudenhwa-ol gyada] TO TURN PHONE ON

Just don’t use it for non-electric things! They have other verbs we don’t cover here!

3.9.1 Vocabulary - Common Table Items

Before you can describe the things on your table, let's learn the Noh'kam words for some common items you might find on a table:

Word list: 桌 [gak] - table 筆 [bi] - pen 橡皮 [sangbi] - eraser 計算機 [geesagi] - computer 儒電話 [rudenhwa] - smartphone 筆記本 [bigibon] - notebook 灯 [dang] - lamp 閂如 [sanda] - to turn off 開如 [gyada] - to turn on

Noh'kam: kamakai (book) Noh'kam: komaki (pen) Noh'kam: tonaki (computer) Noh'kam: harini (phone) Noh'kam: takima (cup) Noh'kam: haima (plate) Noh'kam: sokai (food) Noh'kam: kamari (notebook) 3.9.2 Describing Things on Your Table

To describe the objects on your table in Noh'kam, you can use the following sentence structure:

Noh'kam: [Object] [Exist] [On My Table]. [Object] - Replace this with the name of the object. [Exist] - The word "exist" in Noh'kam. On My Table - The phrase indicating the location. Examples:

Noh'kam: Kamakai exist on my table. (A book is on my table.) Noh'kam: Tonaki exist on my table. (A computer is on my table.) 3.9.3 Practice Describing Objects

Practice describing the objects on your table in Noh'kam with the following exercises:

Exercise 1: Describe the items on your table right now in Noh'kam using the structure you've learned.

Exercise 2: Create sentences for the objects you wish were on your table using the same structure. Example: "A cup of coffee is on my table."

Exercise 3: Describe a friend's table by using the name of one of the objects from the vocabulary list.

By mastering the ability to describe everyday items on your table, you'll be able to engage in casual conversations and provide detailed descriptions of your surroundings in Noh'kam. Practice and creativity are essential for honing this skill.

ANIMALS Comparing things Word list: 以上 [isang] - more 以下 [isa] - less 最 [jwe] (즤) - most 貓 [mau] - cat 狗 [gu] - dog 海狗 [hegu] - seal

Let’s learn to compare things! (basic)

more…

most…

悪 [ak]

以上悪 [isang ak]

最悪 [jweak]

恷 [yashi]

以上恷 [isang yashi]

最恷 [jweyashi]

好 [seu’a]

以上好 [isang seu’a]

最好 [jweseu’a]

古 [go]

以上古 [isang go]

最古 [jwego]

新 [shin]

以上新 [isang shin]

最新 [jweshin]

貓也遠兒好爲如 [mau-i-ol seu’ahada] I LIKE CATS 貓也나好了如 [mau-i-na seu’aida] CATS ARE GOOD Changing the marker and the verb changes the sentence a bit! 好爲如 is one of the only adjectives that can be used like this.

狗也나最好如亦 [gu-i-na jwe-seu’a dayo] DOGS ARE THE BEST.

You can also make the sentence very short:

狗也나最好如. [gu-ina jweseu’a da] DOGS ARE THE BEST. (Dogs (topic) most good da) 狗也나最好. [gu-ina jweseu’a] DOGS ARE THE BEST. (Dogs (topic) most good) 狗也最好. [gu-i jweseu’a] DOGS ARE THE BEST. (Dogs most good)

The only thing that the sentence needs is a topic and an adjective.

海狗也나以上恷如亦. [hegu-i-na isang yashi dayo] SEALS ARE NICER. 狗也나以上古如亦. [gu-i-na isang go dayo] DOGS ARE OLDER.

Sigh*

Making nouns from verbs Word list: 哀嘆爲如 [aidanhada] - to sigh 아휴ㅡ [ahyuu] - (sigh) 笑爲如 [syuhada] - to laugh 하하하 [hahaha] - laughing 問如 [meunda] - to ask 헤ㅡ? [hee?] - (confusion)

海狗나哀嘆爲如. 아휴ㅡ! [hegu-na aidanhada. Ahyuu!] 海狗나笑爲如. 하하하! [hegu-na syuhada. Hahaha!] 海狗나問如. 헤ㅡ? [hegu-na meunda. Hee?] THE SEAL SIGHS. *SIGH* THE SEAL LAUGHS. *HAHAHA* THE SEAL ASKS. *HUH?* Today we will learn how to deconstruct verbs to make nouns. Let’s take 哀嘆爲如 [aidanhada] (to sigh). It’s a hada-type verb, so you can just take “hada” out to make the noun 哀嘆 [aidan] (a sigh)! Let’s do this with a da-type verb, 問如 [meunda] (to ask). Can you guess what 問 [meun] is? Right, question! Basically, removing the “hada” or “da” creates a noun! Let’s try this with some new verbs:

必要爲如 [hiyohada] (to need) -> 必要 [hiyo] (a need) 保存爲如 [hojonhada] (to save) -> 保存 [hojon] (preservation) 壊如 [hoda] (to break) -> 壊 [ho] (broken)

Points on 卉 [hwek]: This is a particle you can attach to the end of a word to make “like…”. For example:

가게 [gage] -> 가게卉 [gagehwek] THIS -> LIKE THIS 我 [wa] -> 我卉 [wahwek] ME -> LIKE ME

UNDER, OVER Word list: 下 [sa] - UNDER 鄰/隣* [rin] - NEXT TO 內 [ne] - INSIDE 左 [jo] - LEFT 右 [o] - RIGHT 中 [jung] - CENTER, MIDDLE 何 [he] - HOW 感謝爲如 [gansahada] - THANK YOU!

stylistic choice, you can use either one!

子1: 나농아ー! 学校於何去如吗? [ji yit][nanongaa! Hakgyo-o he gudaga?] (child one: Hello! School-to how go-(question))

子2: 나농아ー! 学校於? 学校나店柄隣於了如亦! [ji ni][hakgyo-o? Hakgyo-na ga-kara rin-o idayo!] (child two: Hello! School-to? school-(topic) shop-from next to-in to be (casual))

子1: 左於? [ji yit][jo-o?] (child one: left-in?)

子2: 不左, 右於! [ji ni][bu jo, o-o!] (child two: not left, right-in!)

子1: 感謝爲如 [gansahada!] (child one: thank you!) Here’s a basic way to ask for directions! XX於何去如吗? [XX-o he gudaga] - “How do I go to XX?”

You can answer this question like Child 2 answered in the text, or with something like this: XX於YY和去如亦. [XX-o YY-wa gudayo] - “You can go to XX with YY”. This is used especially when there is a specific route or mode of transportation to get to said place.

You can also use the word for “where” that we have already learned, 오고 [ogo] or 乜所 [myeso]: XX나오고如吗? [XX-na ogodaga?] - “Where is XX?” XX나乜所如吗? [XX-na myesodaga?] - “Where is XX?” For example: 我나乜所如吗? [wa-na myesodaga?] - “Where am I?”

You can answer these questions with XX나YY於了如亦 [XX-na YY-o idayo] - “XX is in/at/on YY” For example: 我나学校於了如亦 [wa-na hakgyo-o idayo] - “I am at school”

What do these words mean? Add the correct number next to the word.

父 [bo] - 1 冊子 [saji] - 2 中 [jung] - 3 紅 [hong] - 4 TRANSLATION

NUMBER

BOOK

MIDDLE, CENTER

DAD

WARM RED

What do these words mean? Add the correct number next to the word.

YELLOW - 1 SISTER - 2 OLD - 3 TO READ - 4 TRANSLATION

NUMBER

古 [go]

黃 [hong]

姐 [ja]

読如 [yuda]

FILLER WORDS Word list: 例나… [ri-na] - FOR EXAMPLE… …約 [yo] AS… 不㢱 [bumyo] - OR …或曰如謖如 [tto iwadatda] - …SAID …依的… [ie] - DONE BY… (past participle) 切兒 [kkil] - BETWEEN 孔 [kong] - (SURNAME KONG) 氏 [ssi] - MR./MA’AM 人物 [jinbu] - CHARACTER (IN A STORY) 文章 [munsang] - TEXT

例나, 孔氏가読如亦. [ri-na, kong-ssi-ga yudayo] (example-(topic), kong-sir-(subject) read-(casual) FOR EXAMPLE, MR.KONG READS. When using 例나 [ri-na], the topic marker 나 [na] shows that 例 [ri] is the topic of the sentence. Anything after that must take the subject marker 가 [ga] as there cannot be more than one topic in a sentence.

孔氏가人物約読如亦. [kong-ssi-ga jinbu-yo yudayo] (kong-sir-(subject) character-as read-(casual)) MR.KONG READS (AS A) IN CHARACTER. Here, Mr.Kong is reading in character. In Noh'kam, you say that someone reads “as” a character. 約 [yo] is always attached to the end of the word.

孔氏가 “読如亦” 或曰如謖如. [kong-ssi-ga “yudayo” tto iwadatda] (kong-sir-(subject) “read-(casual)” said) “(I AM) READING” SAID MR.KONG. Here, you need to remember that the Noh'kam word order goes slightly differently to the English word order. So, instead of “I am reading” said Mr.Kong, you should format the sentence like “Kong-mister “I am reading” said”, as the “one doing” always comes first and the action “being done” always comes last.

The particle 或 [tto] ensures that the speaker notices that the quote is ending. That is why it’s placed between a quote and the verb after it.

孔氏依的読如謖如无冊. [kong-ssi-ie yudatdan sa] (kong-sir-by read-(done) book) THE BOOK READ BY MR.KONG. Wait a minute! We haven’t covered actions that are “done” (past participles)! Let me explain how to form those first!

Let’s take the verbs 読如 [yuda] (to read) and 宿題爲如 [sukdehada] (to do homework). We want to make them into forms that show that the action was done. First, we want to change them into their past tense forms: 読如 [yuda] -> 読如謖如 [yudatda] 宿題爲如 [sudehada] -> 宿題爲謖如 [sudehatda]

Now, all there is left to do is to add a final [n] to the end. (The Chinese character for the final -n is 无 which is not a simplification of 無 [mu] in this language) So these verbs become 読如謖如 [yudatda] -> 読如謖如无 [yudatdan] 宿題爲謖如 [sudehatda] -> 宿題爲謖如无 [sudehatdan]

These forms are used in sentences like “a book written by the cat” or “the homework done by the child”.

Okay, back to the sentence itself! The grammar for 依的 [ie] is a bit unusual. When using it in this sentence, topic and subject markers are dropped and 依的 is put in instead. That is because 依的 itself shows that the word it’s put after is the one that has done the action! You don’t need to put any markers when the person doing the action is marked by a word like this.

Adjectives and Adverbs

ADJECTIVES

Provides attributes or qualities to describe nouns. Example: dɛ (black), hɑɪ (big), lɔ (old)

Word list:

好 (스아 すぅあ) [seu’a] – GOOD 悪 (악 あㇰ) [ak] – BAD 恷 (야시 やし) [ya shi] – NICE 古 (고 ご) [go] – OLD 新 (신 しん) [shin] – NEW

These are our beginner adjectives. Usually, you would add 了如 [ida] to these adjectives to make “to be…”! So, they would become

好了如 [seu’a i da] - TO BE GOOD 悪了如 [ak i da] - TO BE BAD 恷了如 [ya shi i da] - TO BE NICE 古了如 [go i da] - TO BE OLD 新了如 [shin i da] - TO BE NEW

我나 新了如 [wa na shin i da] - I AM NEW 乜人나 悪了如吗 [mye jin na ak i da ga] - WHO IS BAD? 你나 恷了如 [na na ya shi i da] - YOU ARE NICE

Spot who the person “being” is always at the start and the verb at the end just like in every other sentence! At this point, you should be familiar with this! Try creating more sentences with all of the words you’ve learned so far! Types

Adjective doubling: ボコ [boko] “proud” to ボコボコ [bokoboko] “very proud”. Doubling an adjective acts the same way as saying “very…” in English! You can do this with any adjective!

Word list:

カワヤン [kawayan] - bamboo トゥドール [tudooru] - to sleep ナヌ [nanu] - to swim ネンヌ [nennu] - to think カ [ka] - and ボコ [boko] - proud

ADVERBS

Modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, providing additional information about manner, place, time, degree, or frequency of an action or state. Adverbs can be formed using various affixes to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Here are some examples of affixes that can be used to derive adverbs: Example: kɔi (coldly), qɔu (spit), wuʁi (warmly)

Types

1. Adverbs of manner: These adverbs describe how an action is performed. Example: quickly, slowly, happily, carefully

2. Adverbs of time: These adverbs indicate when an action takes place. Example: now, then, yesterday, soon

3. Adverbs of place: These adverbs indicate where an action occurs. Example: here, there, nearby, everywhere

4. Adverbs of degree: These adverbs indicate the intensity or extent of an action or quality. Example: very, extremely, quite, too

5. Adverbs of frequency: These adverbs indicate how often an action occurs. Example: always, often, rarely, never

6. Adverbs of negation: These adverbs indicate negation or denial. Example: not, never, nowhere

7. Adverbs of affirmation: These adverbs indicate affirmation or agreement. Example: certainly, definitely, indeed, surely

8. Adverbs of interrogative: These adverbs are used in questions. Example: how, when, where, why

Affixes:

1. -sa: This affix can be added to nouns or adjectives to form adverbs indicating the manner or way in which an action is performed. Example: ɣaɪ (good) → ɣaɪsa (well)

2. -θi: This affix can be added to verbs to form adverbs indicating the manner or way in which an action is performed. Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛiθi (drinkingly)

3. -na: This affix can be added to adjectives to form adverbs indicating the degree or extent of a quality. Example: ʒaɪ (big) → ʒaɪna (bigly, greatly)

4. -la: This affix can be added to verbs or adjectives to form adverbs indicating the location or direction of an action. Example: hæi (think) → hæila (thoughtfully)

5. -xi: This affix can be added to verbs or adjectives to form adverbs indicating the time or frequency of an action. Example: ʧi (do) → ʧixi (often)

6. -ra: This affix can be added to adjectives to form adverbs indicating the manner or quality of something. Example: hɑɪ (right) → hɑɪra (correctly)

1. Manner Adverbs: - -χa: indicates manner or way Example: kɛi (to drink) → kɛiχa (drinkingly)

2. Degree Adverbs: - -qai: indicates degree or intensity Example: ʃi (to sing) → ʃiqai (singing loudly)

3. Time Adverbs: - -ɪn: indicates time or frequency Example: wɔ (to see) → wɔɪn (seeing often)

4. Place Adverbs: - -kɛ: indicates place or location Example: ʒɛ (to be) → ʒɛkɛ (being here)

5. Manner and Degree Adverbs: - -θu: indicates manner or way, with a degree of intensity Example: pɪ (to play) → pɪθu (playing enthusiastically)

6. Negation Adverbs: - ma-: indicates negation or lack Example: ma-ʦi (not what)

Modifying nouns and verbs Prepositions and Conjunctions

- Expressing relationships and connections between words and phrases

Preposition: Establishes a relationship between a noun/pronoun and another word in the sentence. Example: dɪ (in), ʒɛ (at), sɪ (with)

Conjunction: Connects words, phrases, or clauses.

Example: nʌ (and), tɪ (if), lɔ (because)

Interjections and Onomatopoeia

INTERJECTIONS

Expresses strong emotions or sudden reactions. Example: ɪ! (ouch!), hɑɪt! (wow!), pɪ! (phew!)

ONOMATOPOEIA

Word list: 다꾸와이무꾸와이 [dakkuwaimukkuwai] - (sticking close to something) 고ꥢㅜ고ꥢㅜ [gotsu-gotsu] - (pinching) 고리고리 [gori-gori] - (squealing, being a fan) 구구 [gu-gu] - “oink oink” 구ㅡ구ㅡ [guu-guu] - (crying) 게게 [ge-ge] - (being awake) 尖尖 [chang-chang] - (being pointy) 와지와지 [waji-waji] - (anger) 왁왁 [wak-wak] - (dark) 유루유루 [yuru-yuru] - (free) 냥냥 [nyang-nyang] - “meow” 亘亘 [sen-sen] - (spinning) 淚淚 [ru-ru] - (weeping) 뽀가뽀가 [ppoka-ppoka] - (making a hole) 뼁뼁 [ppeng-ppeng] - (wind through a hole)

These words are used to describe stuff. Usually, they are placed before a verb like this: 뽀가뽀가穴遠兒爲如 [ppoka-ppoka hye-ol hada] (To make a hole like “ppoka-ppoka”) Sometimes they can be used as a verb itself! 구ㅡ구ㅡ爲如 [guuguuhada] (To cry)

Classifiers/Measure Words

COUNTER WORDS Word list: place marker: 〜た -ta counter particle: 個げ ge 個 [ge] - (general) 杯 [bi] - (cups, glasses) 冊 [sa] - (books) 番 [ban] - (times, positions) 課 [ga] - (lessons) 位 [wi] - (rank) 玻璃 [eri] - glass 冊子 [saji] - book 授業 [suyo] - lesson

Counter words are something that is familiar to people who have studied East Asian languages. Here’s what they are. Let’s say I want to say “three lessons”, I would say 授業三課 [suyo sam-ga] (lesson three (lessons)) So put the noun first, add the number, and apply the counter word after that. To say “three glasses” you would say 玻璃三杯 [eri sam-bi] (glass three (glasses))

You can also just drop the noun altogether, making these 三課 [sam-ga] and 三杯 [sam-bi], and you would know that the first one means “three lessons” but you wouldn’t know that the latter refers to a glass! (Wikipedia has a good article called “Measure word” which you can look into if you didn’t get this!)

These parts of speech help categorize and understand how words function within sentences and communicate meaning in a language.

Classifier for long, thin objects: -mva Example: ru-mva (a long, thin stick)

Classifier for round objects: -thol Example: po-thol (a round fruit)

Classifier for flat objects: -qol Example: ja-qol (a flat leaf)

Classifier for animals: -ndzi Example: lɑi-ndzi (a fish)

Grammatical Cases

In Noh'kam, an agglutinative language, grammatical cases are used to indicate the role or relationship of a noun or pronoun within a sentence. Here are some common grammatical cases that may be present in Noh’kam:

1. Nominative Case: The nominative case is typically used for the subject of a sentence or the noun that performs the action. It is often unmarked in isolating languages like Noh’kam.

2. Accusative Case: The accusative case is used to mark the direct object of a verb, indicating the noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb. It may be marked with a specific affix or particle.

3. Genitive Case: The genitive case is used to indicate possession or relationship between two nouns. It typically marks the noun that shows ownership or origin. The genitive case can be marked by an affix or a separate word.

4. Dative Case: The dative case is used to indicate the indirect object or the recipient of an action. It can also express the purpose or goal of an action. The dative case may be marked with an affix or a separate word.

5. Locative Case: The locative case is used to indicate location or place where an action takes place. It can also express the time or manner in which something happens. The locative case may be marked with an affix or a separate word.

6. Ablative Case: The ablative case is used to indicate movement away from a location or source. It can also indicate the cause or means by which something happens. The ablative case may be marked with an affix or a separate word.

7. Instrumental Case: The instrumental case is used to indicate the means or instrument by which an action is performed. It can also express the manner in which something is done. The instrumental case may be marked with an affix or a separate word.

8. Vocative Case: The vocative case is used to address or call someone or something. It is used when directly speaking to or referring to someone. The vocative case may be marked with an affix or a separate word.

Here are some affixes that can be used to indicate grammatical cases in Noh’kam:

1. Nominative Case (subject):

- Affix: -sa 2. Accusative Case (direct object): - Affix: -ja 3. Dative Case (indirect object): - Affix: -ma 4. Genitive Case (possession): - Affix: -ni 5. Locative Case (location): - Affix: -ka 6. Instrumental Case (means, tool): - Affix: -ta 7. Ablative Case (origin, source): - Affix: -ha 8. Vocative Case (direct address): - Affix: -ri 9. Comitative Case (accompaniment): - Affix: -vi 10. Comparative Case (comparison): - Affix: -si Complex Sentences Introduction to Complex Sentences Subordinate Clauses Compound Sentences

Conversation and Dialogues

Greetings and Introductions Conversation at the store

Shopping トコアンアヌボノウ? [toko-an anu bonou] バラトゥ, バワン, レモカバヤボノウ。 [baratu, bawan, remo ka baya bonou] レモアヌナボノウ? [remo anuna bonou?] カテブハウナボノウ。 [kate buhau na bonou]

What do you need from the shops? I need cucumber, onion, lemon and rice. Why do you need lemons? I need them to make juice.

Grammar points:

アン [an] is also used to mean “from”! アヌナ [anuna] is a compound of sorts: アヌ [anu] “what” + ナ [na] “because” = アヌナ [anuna] “what for?” ブハウナボノウ: “make because need” a.k.a. “I need it to make…” or “I need it because I’m making…”

Word list: トコ [toko] - store, shop バラトゥ [baratu] - cucumber バワン [bawan] - onion レモ [remo] - “lemon” バヤ [baya] - rice (uncooked) カテ [kate] - juice ナ [na] - because ボノウ [bonou] - to need ブハウ [buhau] - to do, make

Casual vs. neutral endings Word list: 店 (가 が) [ga] - STORE, SHOP 欢迎爲如 (환옹하다 ㇹわんはだ) [hwan ong ha da] - WELCOME 買如 (삭다 さㇰだ) [sak da] - TO BUY 円 (완 わん) [wan] - THE WAN (WAEDO’S CURRENCY)

나농아ー! 店迄欢迎爲如! [na nong aa! Ga mal le hwan ong ha da] HELLO! WELCOME TO THE STORE! (Hello! Shop-to welcome) 나농아ー! 가게遠兒買如亦. [na nong aa! Ga ge ol sak da yo] HELLO! I'LL BUY THIS. (Hello! This-object to buy (casual)) 恷. 가게나 五円如亦! [ya shi. Ga ge na geu wan da yo] NICE. THIS IS FIVE WAN (Nice. This-topic five wan (casual))

This is a very casual store conversation between a customer and a seller. See how there are 如亦 - endings from both speakers! This means that the speakers are being super casual, probably friends or of the same age! Also, spot how 欢迎爲如 [hwan ong ha da] is often not written with a 如亦 [dayo]-ending! This is to respect the person you’re speaking to! Conversation at the school Word list: 係 (하이 はい) [hai] - YES 大多 (다수 だす) [da su] - A LOT 練習爲如 (룐숩하다 りょんすブはだ) [ryon sub ha da] - TO LEARN 又 (뮤 みゅ) [myu] - ALSO, TOO

나농아ー! 今日나 学校迄去如謖如吗? [na nong aa! Ga i na hak gyo mal le gu dat da ga] HELLO! TODAY, DID YOU GO TO SCHOOL? (Hello! Today-topic school-to went (question))

係! 学校迄去如謖如! 大多練習爲謖如! [Hai! Hak gyo mal le gu dat da! Da su ryon sub hat da] YES! I DID GO TO SCHOOL! I LEARNED A LOT! (Yes! School-to went! A lot learned)

我又大多練習爲謖如! [wa myu da su ryon sub hat da] ME TOO, I LEARNED A LOT! (Me also, a lot learned)

A new verb, 練習爲如 [ryon sub ha da] appears! It’s a hada-type verb, so the past is 練習爲謖如 [ryon sub hat da]! Also, spot 又 [myu], which attaches to the word unlike English “too” or “also”! TEST TIME! What do these sentences mean? 八十四学校也 [ba shit shim hak gyo i] 我的学校나悪了如亦 [wa e hak gyo na ak i da yo] 가게나家쟈네ㅡ요 [ga ge na ga jya nee yo]

ANSWERS 84 schools My school is bad (casual) This is not a house

Can you make a sentence yourself? Try it out! Take a look at the word lists if you need some help!

Info: At this point in the book, we will go from spelling each syllable apart from each other (ya shi ha da) to marking them as full words (yashihada).

Asking and Answering Questions Role-Play Exercises

Dialogue 1

Welcome to the first dialogue, where your knowledge about Noh'kam will be put to a test! This dialogue will consist of a couple of sentences, words and characters, each question will have the amount of points listed next to the question number, and at the end you can calculate the amount of points that you’ve gotten! GOOD LUCK WITH DIALOGUE 1

   1. 	
		
3P 	- Write down 	the sounds of Hiragana characters
   •

ひ		……
   •

ふぁ		……
   •

ろ		……
   •

ぶ		……
   •

じょ		……
   •

むぁ		……

   2. 	
		
3P 		- Translate the following words into English
   •

君		………
   •

書物		………
   •

今日		………
   •

や		………
   •

体病		………
   •

犬		………

   3. 	
		
3P 		- Translate the following words into Noh'kam and its pronunciation
   •

Cat		………………………
   •

To 		sleep	………………………
   •

Hello		………………………
   •

City		………………………
   •

Which	………………………
   •

Over 		there	………………………

   4. 	
		
3P 		- Translate the following sentences into Noh'kam

   • 	
		
Where 		is my cat?

………………………………

   • 	
		
I 		saw your cat yesterday.

………………………………

   • 	
		
Did 		he write this book?

………………………………

   5. 	
		
3P 		- Translate the following sentences into English

   • 	
		
我達うだろやべったい。

………………………………

   • 	
		
君ぬ学家げだごやんべるい。

………………………………

   • 	
		
前日、猫見おっと。

………………………………

END OF DIALOGUE 1

   • 	
		
15 		total points avalible
   •

Questions 		1, 2, and 3: one correct = ½ point
   •

Questions 		4 and 5: one correct = 1 point
   •

Answers 		are on the next page

Dialogue 1 ANSWERS

   1. 	
		
3P 	- Write down 	the sounds of Hiragana characters
   •

ひ		hi
   •

ふぁ		fa
   •

ろ		ro
   •

ぶ		vu
   •

じょ		jo
   •

むぁ		mwa

   2. 	
		
3P 		- Translate the following words into English
   •

君		you
   •

書物		book
   •

今日		today
   •

や		to 		be/is
   •

体病		sick
   •

犬		dog

   3. 	
		
3P 		- Translate the following words into Noh'kam and its pronunciation
   •

Cat		猫
   •

To 		sleep	寝おん
   •

Hello		はっふぁ
   •

City		市
   •

Which	だろ
   •

Over 		there	あご

   4. 	
		
3P 		- Translate the following sentences into Noh'kam

   • 	
		
Where 		is my cat?

我ぬ猫げだごやい。

   • 	
		
I 		saw your cat yesterday.

前日、(我げ)うゆぬ猫見おっと。

   • 	
		
Did 		he write this book?

あげけろ書物書ちゅっとぅっが。

   5. 	
		
3P 		- Translate the following sentences into English

   • 	
		
我達うだろやべったい。

Which one did we do?

   • 	
		
君ぬ学家げだごやんべるい。

Where is your school?

   • 	
		
前日、猫見おっと。

I saw a cat yesterday.

Writing and Composition

Letter Writing Short Stories or Essays Correcting Common Mistakes

Asking for Directions and Giving Instructions

Asking for Directions

Places イダヌナカウ? [ida nu nakau?] ウウ… ペアバヌア! [uu… pea banua!] バヌア? アヌナバヌア? [banua? Anuna banua?] バヌアアントコマル! [banua-an toko maru!] バヤクーボノウ? [baya kuu bonou?] アイ! [ai!]

Where do we go? Hmm… maybe the village! Village? Why village? There is a store in the village! Do you need to buy food? Yes!

Grammar points: ナカウ [nakau] “to go”: The Noh'kam word for “walk” is used to mean “to go” also! So if you’re trying to describe “going” that is definitely not walking, use another word! ペア [pea] “maybe”: This word works very similarly to English “maybe”, but can be used as other similar purposes, such as “perhaps”, “possibly”, “I think so” etc.! バヤ [baya] “rice, food”: A lot of EA languages use the word for “rice” as the word for “food” also! This is the case for Noh'kam too.

Word list: ヌ [nu] - where ナカウ [nakau] - to walk, to go ウウ… [uu…] - Uhh… Hmm… ペア [pea] - maybe バヌア [banua] - village クー [kuu] - take

Word list: 罪悚 [jisong] - SORRY 知如 [shida] - TO KNOW 地図 [jido] - MAP 웬 [wen] BECAUSE 問如 [meunda] - TO ASK

나농아ー! 罪悚, 店나 오고如吗? [Nanongaa! Jisong, ga-na ogodaga?] HELLO! SORRY, WHERE IS THE STORE? (Hello! Sorry, store-topic where (question))

不知如! 你나 地図가 有如吗? [Bushida! Na-na jido-ga yudaga?] (I) DON’T KNOW! DO YOU HAVE A MAP? (Not know! You-topic map-subject have (question))

不有如! 나게웬 問如! [Buyuda! Nagewen meunda!] (I) DON’T HAVE! THAT’S WHY (I’M) ASKING (Not know! That because ask)

This conversation is between two strangers. That’s why there are no -如亦 [dayo]-endings.

Also, spot the 가 [ga]-subject marker after 地図 [jido], showing that the person who is being asked is 你 [na] and 地図 [jido] is the thing that is being asked for.

Giving Instructions Map and Navigation Exercises カム [kamu] NORTH サバル [saberu] WEST チム [chimu] EAST ラフ [rafu] SOUTH

Word list: デア [dea] - every, everything, all テレベシ [terebeshi] - tree タナク [tanaku] - plant デネリ [deneri] - famous ラフ [rafu] - south カム [kamu] - north サバル [saberu] west チム [chimu] east シシ [shishi] - beach

Common names, place names Word list: My own Matamutoshi name スミナヤアヌマナウ? [su-mi naya anu manau] クミナヤ “ヒクバラ” マル、 “クバラアリブハウヒク”マナウ! [ku-mi naya “hikubara” maru, “ku bara-ari buhau hiku” manau!] カレバ、スミナヤアヌマナウ? [kareba, su-mi naya anu manau] クミナヤ “ワンクサ” マル、“ワンハニャクサウ “ マナウ! スミナヤ? [ku-mi naya “wankusa” maru, “wan hanya kusau” manau! Su-mi naya?] クミナヤ “ルマチャ” マル、”ルアンキタウ” マナウ! [ku-mi naya “rumacha” maru, “ru-an kitau” manau]

What does your name mean? My name is Hikubara, it means “I can do things”! Hi, what does your name mean? My name is Wankusa, it means “a bunch of money is raining down”! And your name? My name is Rumacha, it means “sees inside the soul”!

Grammar points: ミ [mi] is a possessive marker, so it turns ス [su] “you” into スミ [sumi] “your”. Let’s build a Matamutoshi name for you! There are two types; noun+verb names and noun names. Let’s go over noun names first. Noun names have only one Noh'kam word in them! Examples:

SUN ラカ raka SUGARCANE テブシ tebushi BEE ケノラナ kenorana ICE サウ sau REED カレヌ karenu

Now you can go by literally any Noh'kam noun, but why not also add a verb! Some examples:

GROWING SMILE メニュワク menyuwaku SWEET WAVE ヘビリヌ hebirinu CHOOSE THE LAW バタビル batabiru THE MORNING COMES ハキマウ hakimau SWIM IN THE LAKE ダナワナヌ danawananu

Word list: マナウ [manau] - to mean ブハウ [buhau] - to do クサウ [kusau] - to rain キタウ [kitau] - to see ワン [wan] - money ル [ru] - soul マチャ [macha] - eye Want a Noh'kam name? Choose one or remix the characters for a new one! FEMININE

NEUTRAL

MASCULINE

冬侶 [dung-i] (winter friend)

風子 [bung-ji] (wind kid)

太明 [da-meng]

(most bright)

光玉 [go-geung]

(bright jade)

苔芽 [tta’e-ga)

(moss sprout)

天合 [den-ha]

(wind merge)

兔 [ttonang]

(rabbit)

塊 [gai]

(lump)

高吉 [go-yushi]

(high, good)

月化 [yu-hwa]

(moon culture)

企宁 [gi-jo]

(expect peace)

凱長 [gee-jang]

(victory long)

美美 [mee-mee]

(pretty x2)

莓莓 [mei-mei]

(strawberry x2)

正人 [jong-jin]

(the righteous one)

花呂 [hwa-ro]

(tub of flowers)

可幸 [ga-shi]

(maybe fortune)

萬䃼 [ban-bok]

(10000 fortune)

(Note that on Waedo, there are no strictly male or female names, so choose what you feel comfortable with! Also, there are two other ethnic groups on the island with their own naming traditions. If you want a minority group name, learn their language first!)

-꼬 [kko] - (a child of…) 國民 [gumin] - CITIZEN 首都 [sudo] - CAPITAL CITY 市 [shi] - CITY 區 [gu] - WARD (OF A CITY) 町 [machi] - TOWN 路 [ro] - ROAD 住所 [juuso] - ADDRESS 馬 [ma] - HORSE 不得 [budak] - CANNOT 生如 [seeda] - TO LIVE

古町路 [gomachiro] 我나我的馬遠兒古町路迄當如亦 [wa-na wa-e ma-ol gomachiro-malle dangda] 我나不得迄乗如亦 [wa-na budak-malle gengdayo] (old-town-road) (me-(topic) me-of horse-(object) old-town-road-to take-(casual)) (me-(topic) cannot-until ride-(casual))

Do you know this song? I won’t be translating it. You do it! After that, see this grammar point.

迄 [malle] can be used as “to” but also “until” as you can see from lines 2 and 3.

Let’s look at the next text for this chapter.

你나什麼市於生如吗? [Na-na shimme shi-o seedaga] (you-(topic) what city-in live-(question)) 我나町於生如亦. [Wa-na machi-o seedayo] (me-(topic) town-in live-(casual)) 오! 什麼町於生如吗? [O! Shimme machi-o seedaga] (Oh! What town-in live-(question)) 海関町! 住所나 45海路了如亦. [Haigwan-machi! Juuso-na shim-shit-geu he-ro idayo] (Haigwan-town! Address-(topic) 45 “he”-road is-(casual)) 오! 海関꼬! [O! Haigwankko!] (Oh! Haigwan-child)

WHAT CITY DO YOU LIVE IN? I LIVE IN A TOWN. OH! WHAT TOWN DO YOU LIVE IN? HAIGWAN TOWN! THE ADDRESS IS 45 HE-ROAD. OH! A CHILD OF HAIGWAN!

Now you know how to ask where someone lives without using the word (where)! 什麼市於生如吗? [shim-me shi-o seedaga]

But did you notice the character 海 was pronounced in two different ways? 海関町 [HAIgwan-machi] 海路 [HE-ro] That is because the character is pronounced “he” in everything except town and city names, where it turns into “Hai” like Haigwan! Don’t ask why!

Becoming Word list: 디다 [dida] - to become 天道虫 [dendochu] - ladybug 田 [tta] - field 可愛 (까아이) [kka’ai] - cute 可樂 (까락) [kkarak] - cola

Let’s learn how to express becoming! The verb 디다 [dida] is the way to go when wanting to express this kind of change. Let’s look at some examples. 可愛 [kka’ai] -> 可愛디다 [kka’aidida] Cute -> to become cute 可樂 [kkarak] -> 可樂디다 [kkarakdida] Cola -> to become cola 天道虫 [dendochu] -> 天道虫디다 [dendochudida] Ladybug -> to become a ladybug

You might also add the particle 於 [o] we learned about earlier behind the verb too. 可愛 [kka’ai] -> 可愛於디다 [kka’ai o dida] Cute -> to become cute 可樂 [kkarak] -> 可樂於디다 [kkarak o dida] Cola -> to become cola 天道虫 [dendochu] -> 天道虫於디다 [dendochu o dida] Ladybug -> to become a ladybug This expresses that you specifically changed your physical form to what you’re talking about and that it’s not metaphorical.

So if someone says “田디다” [ttadida] (to become a field), they did not use 於 [o] so they’re talking about it in a metaphorical way- this metaphor means “to overwork oneself so much the field becomes your reality”.

“田於디다” [tta o dida] would mean it in a literal sense, so if you aren’t turning into a field, refrain from using 於. (Also see how there are spaces on both sides of 於 when romanizing)

Culture and Usage Notes

Social Norms and Etiquette Respect Word list: 子 [ji] - CHILD 安寧 [anning] - HELLO (POLITE) 卉 (훽) [hwek] - LIKE… 是 [shi] - (RESPECT PARTICLE)

母: 나농아ー! 今日나什麼爲謖如吗? [damo][nanongaa! Gai-na shimme hatdaga?] (Grandma: hello! today-(topic) what did-(question)) 子: 나농아ー! 今日読如謖如! [ji][nanongaa! Gai yudatda!] (Child: today read) 大母: 웨가게卉我迄言爲如吗? [ji][we gagehwek wa-malle onhada-ga?] (Grandma: Why this-like me-to speak-(question)) GRANDMA: HELLO! TODAY, WHAT DID YOU DO? CHILD: HELLO! I READ TODAY! GRANDMA: WHY ARE YOU SPEAKING TO ME LIKE THIS?

In Noh'kam, you can make sentences polite with a few easy tricks! Let’s make the child’s sentence more polite!

子: 安寧! 今日나読是如謖如! [ji][anning! Gai-na yushidatda!]

1: Change “nanongaa” to “anning”, the more polite way to say “hello”!

2: Remember to add subject, object, and topic markers correctly! Dropping them makes a sentence more casual. So remember to add them to a sentence when you speak to someone who you need to respect.

3: The 是 [shi]-particle! It’s added to the middle of a verb to make it polite. On hada-type verbs, it’s put in the middle of “hada”! 支援爲如 [jiwonhada] -> 支援爲是如 [jiwonhashida] (to support) 注文爲如 [juumunhada] -> 注文爲是如 juumunhashida] (to order) In da-type verbs, it goes before “da”; 朝如 [juuda] -> 朝是如 [juushida] (to gather) 乗如 [gengda] -> 乗是如 [gengshida] (to ride)

Traditional Holidays and Celebrations Cultural Insights

History ムカアンチュアリアヌサトゥチュ? [muka-an chu-ari anu-sa tuchu] ペアチュアリイニトゥチュ! [pea chu-ari ini tuchu] イダアヌデラバユ? [ida anu dera bayu] イナアリアマアリトトデラク! [ina-ari ama-ari toto deraku] バサユ! デラサバラカトゥル! [basayu! Dera-sa bara katuru]

How did people write in the past? Maybe people did not write! How did they know the language? Moms and dads (=ancestors) talked to their friends! I believe that! They shared things by talking!

Grammar points: ムカアン [muka-an] “history-in” - Noh'kam has no past, but if you really need to talk about the past or history, use this! アヌサ [anu-sa] “what-with” This is a handy expression when you need to ask questions that have to do with “with what did they…”. Here it is followed by トゥチュ [tuchu] “to write”, so the whole question is “with what did (they) write?” イナアリアマアリ [ina-ari ama-ari] is literally translated to “moms & dads” and it means ancestors when talking about the whole nation. Another word is used when talking about one’s own relatives, トゥンプ [tunpu]. サ [sa] is used like the English word “with” but it’s attached to the end of the word; デラサ [dera-sa] “with language”, アヌサ [anu-sa] “with what”.

Word list: ムカ [muka] - past アヌサ [anu-sa] - with what? イナアリアマアリ [ina-ari ama-ari] - ancestors トゥンプ [tunpu] - ancestors バラ [bara] - thing トゥチュ [tuchu] - to write バサユ [basayu] - to know カトゥル [katuru] - to share

Social media マウバキ, キタウ! アブアントトアリサラトマル! [maubaki, kitau! Abu-an toto-ari sarato maru] ボコ! トトアリハニャ! [boko! Toto-ari hanya] ヲウチュハニャ! [wauchu hanya]

Come here, look! I have 1000 friends in the app! I’m proud! So many friends! So many followers!

Grammar points: マウバキ [maubaki] : バキ [baki] is a petitive particle, so it basically acts as the English word “please”. So instead of saying “to come” (マウ), you can say “please come” (マウバキ) when you want someone to come. 🙂 サラト [sarato] “1000” is made of two words, サ [sa] “10” and ラト [rato] “100”! So it actually means “ten hundred” Now why are there no verbs in the second sentence? In Noh'kam, you can drop マル [maru] if the sentence has an adjective and you can figure the meaning by context! So instead, you can say ボコ [boko] and ハニャ [hanya] instead of ボコマル [boko maru] and ハニャマル [hanya maru] ! The actual adjective is ハニャイ [hanyai], but dropping the ending -イ [i] makes it casual slang! Try it out yourself!

Word list: -バキ [baki] - please… マウ [mau] - to come キタウ [kitau] - to look アブ [abu] - “app” サラト [sarato] - 1000 ハニャイ [hanyai] - many ハニャ [hanya] - many (slang) ヲウチュ [wauchu] - follower

Intermediate Grammar

Complex Sentence Structures

ADVANCED SENTENCES

我也切兒, 冊나悪了如謖如 [wai-kkil, sa-na ak idatda] (we-between, book-(topic) bad was) BETWEEN US, THE BOOK WAS BAD.

例나, 人物不㢱人物也悪了如謖如 [ri-na, jinbu bumyo jinbu-i ak idatda] (for example, character or characters bad was) FOR EXAMPLE, A CHARACTER OR (MULTIPLE) CHARACTERS WERE BAD.

孔氏가 “文章不㢱人物” 或曰如謖如. [kong-ssi-ga “munsang bumyo jinbu” tto iwadatda] (kong-sir-(subject) “writing or character” said) “WRITING OR CHARACTER” SAID MR.KONG.

Passive Voice Causative Forms Relative Clauses

Advanced Topics

Idioms and Proverbs Slang and Colloquial Expressions Literary Language

Lexicon

Orthography[]

Example:

Noh'kam Sign Language[]

It's was created in 1895 by Michael Gunsáls, inspired by French Sign Language.

Names[]

Go to: Washirakian name

Examples[]

("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood." (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights))

⬇️UNDER CONSTRUCTION...⬇️

Washirakian language

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